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“Aren’t we living in a world“ – the poet says full of empathy for himself – “where headless men only desire decapitated women? Isn’t this a realistic vision of the world full of the emptiest of illusions? Aren’t your son’s childish drawings much more truthful?“ says Jaromil, the protagonist of Life is Elsewhere by Milan Kundera, a passionate supporter of the 1948 Communist revolution in Czechoslovakia and, not incidentally, a lyric poet. There is a natural affinity, it seems, between revolution and lyric poetry: “Lyricism is intoxication, and man drinks in order to merge more easily with the world. Revolution has no desire to be examined or analyzed, it only desires that the people merge with it; in this sense it is lyrical and in need of lyricism.“
He is one of those individuals who prefer wet to dry eyes, who talk with a hand close to their heart and despise those who keep them in their pockets. He, the young poet living on the edge of times transforming, embodies the syntactical mode of addressing the world coined by André Breton: “beauty will be convulsive or will not be at all”. Radical or nothing, transparent, readable like the tears indicating that the man is feeling, like the open expressing a desire of embracing the world and making it a home, real like the people, not marvellous, immediate not erotic. Hannah Arendt’s claim that, “what makes a man political is his faculty of action” seems undeniable. Who would be in favour of the ugly idea of non-agency in times of urgency, who would not see a danger in those who, in the name of privacy or withdrawal, would privilege a sense of autonomy and then, perhaps, keep their hands in their pockets, or just move their eyes from the crowd, elsewhere. But how to understand what seems to be a disparate for the common sense, that is, that action could somehow be understood as a faculty separated from the realm of the “empirical society”, a term used by Adorno, the real world where everything seems to have a direct consequence, where revolution coincides with a growing awareness of an inability to change the social, where powerlessness just becomes the privileged object of a guilty self-reflection, that, in its turn, has marked the re-foundation of a new twist of critical thinking. Art’s and culture’s reflexive preoccupation with their own powerlessness and superfluity is precisely what makes them capable of theorizing powerlessness in a manner unrivalled by other forms of cultural praxis. However, to become one with the exercise of describing one’s own position, with the rehearsal of the despair provoked by restricted action, seems a sad near future.
Where to look then? Do we need a prophet of unfeelingness, as Carl Gustav Jung called James Joyce? He wrote: “we have a good deal of evidence to show that we actually are involved in a sentimentality hoax of gigantic proportions. Think of the lamentable role of popular sentiment in wartime! … Sentimentality is the superstructure erected upon brutality … I am deeply convinced we are caught in our own sentimentality … it is therefore quite comprehensible that a prophet should arise to teach our culture a compensatory lack of feeling”. Prophets aside, his words open a different space between passivity and action, making the un-feeling as a different way of acting, moving away from the paranoia that interprets the lack of movement, of the immediate release of a sentiment ignoble.
Movement
But the inexpressive, the inert, the unnervingly passive poses many problems to our modern understanding of the political. The hands in their pockets in terms of revolt, the lack of “movement” – action – is perceived as ambiguous, as equivocal because it is antipodal to our will of synchronizing with “our times.” The dysphoric provokes antagonism, it is not there with the rest of us, it is not opening the private into the public, is keeping away a space that belongs to us, is not circulating the same information as the rest, is stopping the circuit, is not transparent. It is the negative pole of empathy. For the lyric soul, for those who “burn with indignation” while witnessing the over-all proliferation of injustice, their hands in their pockets, or just elsewhere, painting monochrome surfaces on canvas, for example, are often seen as expressing a form of resentment, but why – would they not otherwise engage with what needs to be done? Why would they pretend they are living in different times?
Even Foucault, who vehemently rejects the idea of a sovereign, founding subject, a subject capable of experiences, of reasoning, of adopting beliefs and acting, outside all social contexts, even he preserves a form of sovereign autonomy under what he called the “agents.” In contrast to the modern misunderstanding of the autonomous subject, he defends that agents exist only in specific social contexts, but these contexts never determine how they try to construct themselves. Although agents necessarily exist within regimes of power/knowledge, these regimes do not determine the experiences they can have, the ways they can exercise their reason, the beliefs they can adopt, or the actions they attempt to perform. Agents are creative beings – like Jaromil, lyric – and their creativity occurs in a given social context that influences it.
So, not even Foucault dared to go for those not “attempting to perform”. Foucault went even further by arguing that we are free in so far as we adopt the ethos of enlightenment as permanent critique. This is why we assert our capacity for freedom by producing ourselves as works of art. As such, we are again faced with a more complex, more eloquent form of lyricism, where the goal is, after all, not only to be capable of producing sensuality of expression, but also for the self to become a sensual subject.
Therefore, the problem is not only that we identify action with the vivid, with life and that we want to be part of it, seeing withdrawal as a form of enfeeblement, a defect in affection that makes individuals step away from the stream of life. However, the question of lyricism points towards something much more important, methodologically speaking. It moves towards something that surpasses the aesthetic dimensions of our well-rehearsed ideological training: the possibility of conceiving time, historical time, as non-durational, and therefore breaking with our need to not only properly answer to what seems to be required by the force of the present, but also with the nervous tic of wanting to represent it.
Insofar as the understanding of history means delineating a chronological axis upon which events are ordered, the sole task of the historian is to ceaselessly insert the stories that have not yet been included in that great continuous narrative. Meanwhile, the institution (where an exhibition is understood as a way of institutionalising a material) is reduced to the place where the legitimacy of a right acquires a public form. The fact that the exercise of revision and the recovery of things forgotten provoke unanimous respect proves that a fitting vocabulary has been found, one that serves solely to avoid the unpredictable function of the experience of art.
Furthermore, the impact of this re-writing resembles the relationship between a text and a staggering number of footnotes that interrupt the reading process to remind us that writing eludes the author, and that countless parallel actions take place, and have taken place synchronously, with that great text. Those actions were hidden, but the time has come for a reordering, and that means finding a hole in the diachronic axis upon which history is written. “The well of the past,” to use Thomas Mann’s phrase, blossoms on the surface and drowns it. Nothing exists in the singular anymore. We can no longer speak, for instance, of a modernism, but rather of all its multiples. Yet, contemporary art seems to continue to be indivisible (perhaps that is the first symptom of its anachronism). Alongside this endless search for plurals, there lies in the bosom of history a second search: the search of those individuals – artists – who seem to be strangers to time, who escape the wanderings of the present. In the last decade, we have seen a heightening of the sensitivity to the exceptional in art, to those who at least appear to be unmoved by the logic of globalisation. The proliferation of projects on those others – those who think and act without us, so to speak – also forms part of this operation of recovery, which no longer symbolises justice, but the vast seductive power that myth, archetypical being and the genuine still hold in our culture. What these projects evidence is our fear of entering into a state of permanent instability.
The political importance of recovery as a tactic is directly proportional to the impossibility of formulating a more complex statement of the relationship between contemporary art and a discontinuous conception of time that is expressed in rhythms and cannot be represented as duration. In other words, a way of understanding time that is indifferent to the idea of progress and is therefore relieved of the imperative of innovation. This understanding of time has no qualms about repetition, about imitating what has already taken place. Generating doubt about these constant reincarnations and about the spontaneity of the contemporary would provide a way around the supposed sincerity with which it is believed that art and culture – but not, for instance, science – must speak.
In this dialectical interplay between great narrative and academic appendixes, the past and history are manifested as a new facet of culture and of its present power: this is not the power to delve into adventures of logic that might lead to a new episteme, but rather the de facto ability to include or exclude. Nonetheless, this explosion of voices and points of view has contributed to maintaining a degree of confidence in public opinion thanks to the constant effort at ceaseless expansion implied by historiographic revision and its relationship to contemporary art. The worst enemy of the enthusiasm inspired by the possibility of intervening on, interrogating, interfering with, modifying, amending, taking back and affecting hegemonic narration is the tendency to endlessness. Each footnote serves to both clarify and to obscure in a new way, one that, rather than providing a new consciousness of the issue at hand or of contributing to an understanding of the relationship between contemporary art and time, between production and the inextricable complexity of the contexts in which it appears, places us before endless windows through which we peer – always under the promise of completing history. We can assume the risk that disconcertion brings. What is harder, though, is to face the fact that there are those who attempt to replace this strain of research, not by adopting another logic, but by emulating this effort and reducing it to a mere gesture that credibly illustrates the choreography of this explosion of histories within history.
The problem lies in the fact that the politically correct is not a method, but rather a strategy to avoid confronting a technical difficulty: the understanding of times that cannot be reduced to duration, the grasping of rhythms that do not give rise to a continuity, that operate outside the melody of history. The desire to avoid incoherence by abandoning the philosophy of history stands in contrast to the need – one which Schelling insisted on long ago – to delve into other languages that formalise art objects, their ability to become facts and the role that individuals play along lines that distance us from the predictable. An exercise even more complex at a time when citizen-viewers are more passive than they are liberated in relation to what they expect from art.
On a social level, the language that has contributed to producing what is known as contemporary art partakes of the lyrical genre. It is a language geared towards creating enthusiasm, not method; a prose characterised by the careful choice of terms that defend the importance of teary eyes, the choreography of agency, the value of the hand on the heart rather than in the pocket. The inquisition of feelings – even “good” ones – is as much a part of the totalitarian world as the global economy, but it is cloaked in good will while, with true disdain, it attacks the “null” moments of life.
How to find a way out of this melodic way of understanding history without losing sight of rigor or responsibility? The “null,“ that which seems to have strayed from meaning – idiocy, nonsense – merits our attention more than ever before. In these forms of absentmindedness lies a new imagination of the private, a way of resisting the power of empathy in all its strains, whether real or virtual. Mistrust of a thoroughly defined present allows a part of artistic intelligence to elude the desire for art and for institutions to be able to respond eloquently to their times. In other words, it allows an escape from responsibility understood as the imposed need to answer for, to clarify and not to expose ourselves to the exuberance and lightness of thought.1
Literary imagination is not, as he once commented on Kafka, “a dream-like evasion or a pure subjectivity, but rather a tool to penetrate real life, to unmask it, to surprise it.” It was Lessing who, in his “Laocoon. An essay upon the limits of painting and poetry” (1766) first made the principle of chronotopicity clearly apparent; that is, that things that are static in space cannot be statically described, but must be incorporated into the temporal sequence of represented events, into the story’s own representational field. Lessing gives us an example: the beauty of Helena is not so much described by Homer as demonstrated by the actions of the Trojans.
The question of method always becomes a question of time, that is, a question that must truly consider a term largely forgotten in philosophy and art theory: rhythm. The anachronic names a different rhythm, the possibility of straining an analysis of meaning from a different angle that forces the subject and the context – whether institutional or not – to review the conditions from which it puts forth the experience and the interpretation of artistic production. I purposefully leave out art itself, since no art can be considered “contemporary”; that is an institutional consideration, not a question of practice. Indeed, the thesis would be that art is always anachronic. And “what must be reconstructed is the very idea of anachronism as error about time.”2 One of the ultimate aims of artistic production is to transform our idea of time. The anachronic implies accepting the importance of rhythm as fundamental to understanding the relationship between matter and energy. “Rhythm” here has no connection whatsoever with the virtual or the cosmic. In relation to art we, like Gaston Bachelard,3 should speak of a rhythmic realism: the introduction of material and conceptual parameters geared towards freeing us from the need to construct a cultural identity in terms of the philosophy of history.
Insisting that the anachronic is not an aberration but a need means that we must distance ourselves from a method of reading and interpretation dominated by the notion of duration, and instead delve into another method, into a contingency of heterogeneous times that provide other keys to pursue the question of meaning.
Duration implies order; rhythm, intensity. This difference has epistemological consequences: it means forgetting hermeneutics, putting away philological tools and inventing a new critical imagination. Hence, the assertion that the anachronic entails a risk (a challenge that art faces) means rejecting a whole set of conceptual exigencies to be able to express oneself in a foreign language, to introduce another rhythm and to generate a strangeness that forces us to reassemble the current unease. The question now is whether academies and institutions are willing to give up the ironclad alliance between time and space and to assume once and for all that leaving the system behind is not synonymous with chaos.
1.) Nietzsche said that those who defended the notion that thinking was an arduous task should be attacked.
2.) Jacques Rancière: «Le concept d’anachronisme et la vérité de l’historien», L’Inactuel, nº 6, 1996, p. 53.
3.) Gaston Bachelard: La Dialectique de la durée. París: Quadriage/PUF, 1950 (in the chapter on the analysis of rhythm).
1. Marxploitation of the Gothic
The zombie as a figure of alienation is the entranced consumer suggested by Marxian theory. It is Guy Debord’s description of Brigitte Bardot as a rotten corpse and Frederic Jameson’s „death of affect“; and of course what media utopianist Marshall McLuhan called „the zombie stance of the technological idiot.“2 Thus zombification is easily applied to the notion that capital eats up the body and mind of the worker, and that the living are exploited through dead labor.
When Adam Smith invoked the moral operations of the „invisible hand of the market“, he had something else in mind than an integrated world economy that recalls Freud’s unheimlich: „Severed limbs, a severed head, a hand detached from the arm, feet that dance by themselves – all of those have something highly uncanny about them, especially when they are credited with independent activity.“3 Under the globalized reinforcement of capital, the independent activity of ghost limbs is increasingly only apparent, yet no less gratuitous and unsettling.
Economy and production have in this way often been dressed up in Gothic styles; just think of William Blake’s „dark satanic mills“ of industrialization. It is doubtful, of course, that Marx would have endorsed the zombie as a figure of alienation, inasmuch as it incarnates a collapsed dialectics (between life and death, productivity and apathy, etc.) that can only be recaptured with great difficulty. However, leafing through The Communist Manifesto of 1848 one finds rousing Gothic metaphor. The power of class struggle is famously likened to a ghost that is haunting Europe – the „specter of Communism“; we are also told that with the proletariat, the bourgeoisie has produced „its own gravediggers,“ and that modern bourgeois society „has conjured up such gigantic means of production and of exchange“ that it is like „the sorcerer, who is no longer able to control the powers of the netherworld whom he has called up by his spells.“4 The Gothic, understood as the revival of medieval styles in the seventeenth century and since, is the theatrical representation of negative affect that emanates from a drama staged around power; a pessimistic dialectic of enlightenment that shows how rationality flips into barbarism and human bondage. Thus it is puzzling (or populist, agitational) that Marx and Engels employ Gothic metaphor related to the middle ages „that reactionists so much admire.“5 The Gothic contraband in progressive politics is the notion that fear can be sublime. It is as if the reader of the manifesto cannot after all rely on the „sober senses,“ but needs a little extra rhetorical something to compel her to face her „real conditions in life.“6 How did the excess of counter-enlightenment tropes come to prominence in processes of political subjectivation? As Derrida writes in Specters of Marx, „Marx does not like ghosts any more than his adversaries do. He does not want to believe in them. But he thinks of nothing else. … He believes he can oppose them, like life to death, like vain appearances of the simulacrum to real presence.“7 Once it becomes clear that Marxist ghost-hunting is already corrupted by a Gothic impulse, it allows for a reconstruction of Marxist critique; a new „spirit of Marx,“ as discussed by Derrida. In terms of traditional aesthetic hierarchies, the Gothic definitely belongs amongst the underdogs of genres, to the embarrassing aesthetic proletariat. Maybe this is what spoke through Marx, like spirits inhabiting a medium, and helped shaped his formidable literary intuition?
In this perspective there is no political reason to exclude the Gothic. The New York artists collective Group Material were among the first to establish a link between the Gothic and a Marxist line of cultural critique, before the former became a curatorial trope.8 The flyer for their 1980 show „Alienation“ mimicked advertising for Alien, and the film program included James Whale’s Frankenstein (1931). In their installation Democracy (1988), a zombie film was continuously screened throughout the exhibition: Dawn of the Dead, „George Romero’s 1978 paean to the suburban shopping mall and its implicit effects on people.“ The film was „an especially significant presence …, one which indicated the pertinence of consumer culture to democracy and to electoral politics.“9
Franco Moretti makes it clear that you can’t sympathize with those who hunt the monsters. In his brilliant 1978 essay „Dialectic of Fear“ he notes that in classic shockers such as Bram Stoker’s Dracula and Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein „we accept the vices of the monster’s destroyers without a murmur.“10 The antagonist of the monster is a representative of all that is „complacent, stupid, philistine, and impotent“ about existing society. To Moretti this indicates false consciousness in the literature of fear; it makes us side with the bourgeoisie. But by passing judgment on the literature of fear through a dialectic of reason and affect (Stoker „doesn’t need a thinking reader, but a frightened one“), Moretti’s ideology critique joins the ranks of the destroyers of the monster and thereby, on a cultural level, of those fictitious characters he criticizes. In fact, Moretti kills the monster twice: he doesn’t question its killing in the text, and he has no need for it outside the text.
George Romero analyzes the conflict between the monster and its adversaries in a similar vein. Crucially, however, his trilogy Night of the Living Dead (1968), Dawn of the Dead (1978), and Day of the Dead (1985), reverses Moretti’s conclusion, thereby turning cultural space inside out. In Romero, antagonism and horror are not pushed out of society (to the monster) but are rather located within society (qua the monster). The issue isn’t the zombies; the real problem lies with the „heroes“ – the police, the army, good old boys with their guns and male bonding fantasies. If they win, racism has a future, capitalism has a future, sexism has a future, militarism has a future. Romero also implements this critique structurally. As Steven Shaviro observes, the cultural discomfort is not only located in the films’ graphic cannibalism and zombie genocide: the low-budget aesthetics makes us see „the violent fragmentation of the cinematic process itself.“11 The zombie in such a representation may be uncanny and repulsive, but the imperfect uncleanness of the zombie’s face – the bad make-up, the failure to hide the actor behind the monster’s mask – is what breaks the screen of the spectacle.
Brian Holmes writes in „The Affectivist Manifesto“ (2009) that activism today faces „not so much soldiers with guns as cognitive capital: the knowledge society, an excruciatingly complex order. The striking thing … is the zombie-like character of this society, its fallback to automatic pilot, its cybernetic governance.“12 Holmes’s diagnosis gets its punch from the counterintuitive tension between the notion of control and the zombie’s sleepwalking mindlessness. Even our present culture’s schizophrenic scenario of neoliberal economy and post-democratic reinforcement of the state apparatus cannot be reduced to evil. But if Holmes uses the monster trope to define a condition of critical ambiguity, he follows Marxist orthodoxy by setting this definition to work dialectically vis-à-vis an affirmative use of the manifesto format. The manifesto is haunted by its modernist codification as a mobilization of a collective We in a revolutionary Now. This code, and the desire it represents, is invariably transparent to itself, as opposed to the opacity of the zombie.
2. Monster of Mass and Multitude
What most informs metaphorical applications of the zombie is perhaps the functional dimension that its abjectness seems to lend to it. According to Julia Kristeva’s definition, the abject is what I must get rid of in order to be an I.13 The abject is a fantasmatic substance that must be expelled – from the body, from society – in order to satisfy a psychic economy, because it is imagined to have such a likeness or proximity to the subject that it produces panic or repulsion. This, Hal Foster writes, echoing critical preoccupations in the art of the 1980s (the abject) and of the 1990s (the „return of the real“), qualifies the abject as „a regulatory operation.“14 The obverse of the abject is a hygienic operation that promises a blunt instrumentality of getting rid of – of expulsing, excluding, severing, repressing. As we have seen, things are not so clear. The abject sneaks back in as a supplement, subverting attempts at establishing hygienic categories.
I will therefore hypothesize that the zombie’s allegorical (rather than merely metaphorical) potential lies in trying to elaborate and exacerbate the zombie as a cliché of alienation by using it to deliberately „dramatize the strangeness of what has become real,“ as anthropologists Jean and John L. Comaroff characterize the zombie’s cultural function.15 Why would one want to do such a thing? As Deleuze and Guattari had it, the problem with capitalism is not that it breaks up reality; the problem with capitalism is that it isn’t schizophrenic and proliferating enough.16 In other words, it frees desire from traditional libidinal patterns (of family and religion and so on), but it will always want to recapture these energies through profit. According to this conclusion, one way to circumnavigate capitalism would be to encourage its semiotic excess and its speculation in affect. Capitalism is not a totalitarian or tyrannical form of domination. It primarily spreads its effects through indifference (that can be compared to the zombie’s essential lack of protagonism). It is not what capital does, but what it doesn’t do or have: it does not have a concept of society; it does not counteract the depletion of nature; it has no concept of citizenship or culture; and so on. Thus it is a slave morality that makes us cling to capital as though it were our salvation – capitalism is, in fact, what we bring to it. Dramatization of capital through exacerbation and excess can perhaps help distill this state of affairs.
The zombie isn’t just any monster, but one with a pedigree of social critique. As already mentioned, alienation – a Marxian term that has fallen out of use – is central to the zombie. To Marx the loss of control over one’s labor – a kind of viral effect that spreads throughout social space – results in estrangement from oneself, from other people, and from the „species-being“ of humanity as such.17 This disruption of the connection between life and activity has „monstrous effects.“18 Today, in the era of immaterial labor, whose forms turn affect, creativity, and language into economical offerings, alienation from our productive capacities results in estrangement from these faculties and, by extension, from visual and artistic production – and from our own subjectivity. What is useful about the monster is that it is immediately recognizable as estrangement, and in this respect is non-alienating. Secondly, we may address alienation without a concept of nature; a good thing, since the humanism in the notion of „the natural state of man“ (for Marx the positive parameter against which we can measure our alienation) has at this point been irreversibly deconstructed. In other words: the natural state of man is to die, not to end up as undead.
Franco „Bifo“ Berardi describes how Italian Workerist thought of the 1960s overturned the dominant vision of Marxism. The working class was no longer conceived as „a passive object of alienation, but instead the active subject of a refusal capable of building a community starting out from its estrangement from the interests of capitalistic society.“19 For the estranged worker, alienation became productive. Deleuze and Guattari were part of the same generation of thinkers and overturned a traditional view of alienation, for example by considering schizophrenia as a multiple and nomadic form of consciousness (and not as a passive clinical effect or loss of self). They put it radically: „The only modern myth is the myth of zombies – mortified schizos, good for work, brought back to reason.“20
The origin of the zombie in Haitian vodoun has an explicit relationship to labor, as a repetition or reenactment of slavery. The person who receives the zombie spell „dies,“ is buried, excavated, and put to work, usually as a field hand. In his book The Serpent and the Rainbow, ethnobotanist Wade Davis tells the story of a man called Narcisse, a former zombie:
[Narcisse] remembered being aware of his predicament, of missing his family and friends and his land, of wanting to return. But his life had the quality of a strange dream, with events, objects, and perceptions interacting in slow motion, and with everything completely out of his control. In fact there was no control at all. Decision had no meaning, and conscious action was an impossibility.21
The zombie can move around and carry out tasks, but does not speak, cannot fend for himself, cannot formulate thoughts, and doesn’t even know its own name: its fate is enslavement. „Given the colonial history“ – including occupation by France and the US – Davis continues:
the concept of enslavement implies that the peasant fears and the zombie suffers a fate that is literally worse than death – the loss of physical liberty that is slavery, and the sacrifice of personal autonomy implied by the loss of identity.22
That is, more than inexplicable physiological change, victims of voodoo suffer a social and mental death, in a process initiated by fear. The zombie considered as a subaltern born of colonial encounters is a figure that has arisen then out of a new relationship to death: not the fear of the zombie apocalypse, as in the movies, but the fear of becoming one – the fear of losing control, of becoming a slave.
In pop culture the zombie is a twentieth-century monster and hence related to mass phenomena: mass production, mass consumption, mass death. It is not an aristocrat like Dracula or a star freak like Frankenstein; it is the everyman monster in which business as usual coexists with extremes of hysteria (much like democracy at present, in fact). The zombie also straddles the divide between industrial and immaterial labor, from mass to multitude, from the brawn of industrialism to the dispersed brains of cognitive capitalism.
With its highly ambiguous relationship to subjectivity, consciousness, and life itself, we may hence consider the zombie a paradigm of immaterial labor.23 Both the zombie and immaterial labor celebrate logistics and a colonization of the brain and the nervous system. The living dead roam the world and have a genetic relationship with restlessness: they are „pure motoric instinct,“ as it is expressed in Romero’s Dawn of the Dead; or they represent a danger „as long as they got a working thinker and some mobility,“ as one zombie hunter puts it in the novel World War Z by Max Brooks.24 The latter, counterintuitive reference to the zombie’s intellectual capacity may be brought to bear on the terms „intellectual labor“ and „cognitive capitalism,“ used to denote brain-dead – and highly regulated – industries such as advertising and mass media. Or, the „working thinker“ in the zombie’s dead flesh is an indication of the Marxist truth that matter thinks. As Lenin asked: What does the car know – of its own relations of production? In the same way, the zombie may prompt the question: What does the zombie’s rotting flesh know – of the soul? As Spinoza said: what the body can do, that is its soul.25 And the zombie can do quite a lot.
In Philip Kaufman’s 1978 film Invasion of the Body Snatchers, a space plant that duplicates people and brings them back as empty versions of themselves spreads its fibers across the Earth as if it were the World Wide Web. The body-snatched don’t just mindlessly roam the cities in search of flesh and brains, but have occupied the networks of communication and start a planetary operation to circulate bodies, as if proponents of the great transformation from industrialism to immaterial labor, in which production is eclipsed and taken over by a regime of mediation and reproduction. This is our logistical universe, in which things on the move are valorized, and in which more than ever before the exchange of information itself determines communicative form. The nature of what is exchanged recedes in favor of the significance of distribution and dissemination. Exigencies of social adaptation, by now familiar to us, also appear in Invasion. Somebody who has clearly been body-snatched thus tells the main character, played by Donald Sutherland, to not be afraid of „new concepts“: imperatives to socialize and to reinvent oneself, shot through with all the accompanying tropes of self-cannibalization (self-management, self-valuation, self-regulation, self-consume, and so forth). Thus the body snatchers are a caricature of ideal being, incarnating mobility without nervousness.26
3. „Solipsistic and asocial horror“
The necessity of a sociological reading of the modern monster derives, for our purpose, from the pressure that the capitalization of creativity has in the past decade exerted on artistic practice and thinking. Art has become a norm, in a different way than it was under the cultural order of the bourgeoisie. In short, within the „experience economy,“ art’s normative power consists in commodifying a conventional idea of art’s mythical otherness with a view to the reproduction of subjectivity and economy.
Ten years ago, management thinkers James H. Gilmore and B. Joseph Pine II launched the concept of the experience economy with their book The Experience Economy: Work is Theatre and Every Business a Stage. Here they describe an economy in which experience is a new source of profit to be obtained through the staging of the memorable. What is being produced is the experience of the audience, and the experience is generated by means of what may be termed „authenticity effects.“ In the experience economy it is often art and its markers of authenticity – creativity, innovation, provocation, and the like – that ensure economic status to experience.27
Gilmore and Pine advise manufacturers to tailor their products to maximize customer experience, thus valve manufacturers could profitably increase the „pumping experience“; furniture manufacturers might correspondingly emphasize the „sitting experience“; and home-appliance manufacturers could capitalize on the „washing experience,“ the „drying experience,“ and the „cooking experience.“28 The „psychological premise“ of being able to „alter consumers’ sense of reality“ is a central theme.29 Gilmore and Pine’s mission is to highlight the profitability of producing simulated situations. Their arguments will not be subverted by simply pointing out this fact: the experience economy is beyond all ideology inasmuch as it is their declared intention to fake it better and more convincingly. In the experience economy’s ontological displacement towards an instrumentalized phenomenology, it becomes irrelevant to verify the materiality of the experienced object or situation. Memorable authenticity effects are constituted in a register of subjective experience. In other words, one’s own subjectivity becomes a product one consumes, by being provided with opportunities to consume one’s own time and attention through emotive and cognitive responses to objects and situations. Similarly, when the experience economy is applied to cultural institutions and the presentation of art works, it revolves around ways of providing the public with the opportunity to reproduce itself as consumers of cultural experiences.
It is difficult not to see the consequences of the experience economy as the dismantling of not only artistic and institutional signification but also of social connections. Thus the syllabus for the masters-level experience economy course offered by the University of Aarhus explains how consumers within an experience economy function as „hyper-consumers free of earlier social ties, always hunting for emotional intensity,“ and that students of the course are provided with „the opportunity to adopt enterprising behaviours.“30
Cultural critic Diedrich Diederichsen calls such self-consume Eigenblutdoping, blood doping. Just as cyclists dope themselves using their own blood, cultural consumers seek to augment their self-identity by consuming the products of their own subjectivity. According to Diederichsen, this phenomenon is a „solipsistic and asocial horror,“ which reduces life to a loop we can move in and out of without actually participating in any processes.31 Inside these loops, time has been brought to a halt, and the traditional power of the cultural institution is displaced when audiences are invited to play and participate in an ostensible „democratization“ of art. In the loop, audiences ironically lose the possibility of inscribing their subjectivities on anything besides themselves, and are hence potentially robbed of an important opportunity to respond to the institution and the exhibitionary complex where art is presented.
The zombie returns at this point, then, to stalk a new cultural economy that is necessarily already no longer current; nor is it ever outdated, because it cancels cultural time measured in decades and centuries. The time of the experience economy is that of an impoverished present.32
4. The Death of Death
There are several reasons why we need a modern monster. Firstly, it can help us meditate on alienation in our era of an immaterial capitalism that has turned life into cash; into an onto-capitalist, forensic culture in which we turn towards the dead body, not with fear, but as a kind of pornographic curator (as testified to by any number of TV series about vampires, undertakers, and forensics). As Steven Shaviro writes, „zombies mark the rebellion of death against its capitalist appropriation … our society endeavors to transform death into value, but the zombies enact a radical refusal and destruction of value.“33 Shaviro sharply outlines here the zombie’s exit strategy from that strangest of scenarios, the estrangement of death itself. But at the same time, one wonders whether it can be that simple. Immaterial capitalism’s tropes of self-cannibalization render it more ambiguous than ever whether the abject is a crisis in the order of subject and society, or a perverse confirmation of them. In other words, beyond the destruction of value that Shaviro discusses, it all revolves around a riddle: If, during our lifespan as paying beings, life itself has become capital, then where does that leave death?
One answer is that, in a world with no outsides, death died. We are now witnessing the death of death, of which its overrepresentation is the most prominent symptom. For the first time since the end of the Second World War there are no endgame narratives. Apocalyptic horizons are given amnesty. A planet jolted out of its ecological balance is a disaster, but not something important. In art, the mid twentieth century’s „death of the Author“ and „death of Man“ are now highly operational, and the „death of Art,“ a big deal in the 1980s, is now eclipsed by the splendid victory of „contemporary art.“ This in spite of the obvious truth that art, considered as an autonomous entity, is dead and gone, replaced by a new art (a double?) that is directly inscribed on culture; a script for social and cultural agency. There is nothing left to die, as if we were caught in the ever-circling eye of the eternal return itself. As the blurb for George Romero’s Survival of the Dead (2009) goes: „Death isn’t what it used to be.“ This ought to be a cause for worry. Endgame narratives have always accompanied new paradigms, or have negated or problematized the reproduction of received ideas.
The zombie is always considered a post-being, a no-longer-human, an impossible subject. But can we also think of it as a pre-being? Can we turn it into a child; that most poignant embodiment of the monster and the ghost (the „child-player against whom can do nothing,“ as Spinoza put it), or at least allow it to indicate a limit of not-yet-being?34 That is, the lack incarnated by zombie is also present at the level of enunciation in the zombie narrative. In Romero’s films, the zombie apocalypse gradually recedes into the background and other – inter-human, social – problems become prominent during the unfolding of the plot. The zombie, always mute, is never at the center of the plot the way Dracula or Frankenstein are, hence its presence cannot be explained away as a mechanism for reintegrating social tension through fear. It is a strange, tragicomic monster that displaces evil and its concept: the zombie isn’t evil, nor has it been begot by evil; it is a monstrosity that deflects itself in order to show that our imagination cannot stop at the monster. It is irrelevant if you kill it (there will always be ten more rotten arms reaching through the broken window pane). The zombie pushes a horizon of empty time ahead of it; whether that time will be messianic or apocalyptic is held in abeyance. Or, the zombie represents the degree to which we are incapable of reimagining the future. So the question becomes: How can we look over its shoulder? What future race comes after the zombie? How do we cannibalize self-cannibalization? The only way to find out is to abstract the zombie condition.
Sooner or later, the opacity of our fascination with the zombie exhausts sociological attempts at reading of it. There is ultimately no way to rationalize the skepticism the zombie drags in. A similar mechanism is at work in art. Whereas sociology is based on positive knowledge, art is based on the concept of art and on culture’s re-imagining of that concept. Beyond the experience economy, and beyond sociological analysis of these, there lie new artistic thinking and imagining. Thus we can witness how it all falls apart in the end: sociology, zombie as allegory, even the absence of the end that turns out to be one. What is left are material traces to be picked up anew.
“Zombies of Immaterial Labor” was originally presented in the Masquerade lecture series, organized by the curatorial platform “If I Can’t Dance I Don’t Want To Be Part Of Your Revolution”, at the Piet Zwart Institute in Rotterdam, January 25, 2010.
Wiederabdruck
Dieser Text erschien zuerst in: e-flux journal # 15, April 2010, http://www.e-flux.com/journal/zombies-of-immaterial-labor-the-modern-monster-and-the-death-of-death/ [29.5.2013].
1.) I am grateful to Brian Kuan Wood for the title of this essay.
2.) “The Playboy Interview: Marshall McLuhan,“ Playboy, March 1969, available at http://www.nextnature.net/2009/12/the-playboy-interview-marshall-mcluhan. I am grateful to Jacob Lillemose for this reference.
3.) Sigmund Freud, The Uncanny, trans. David McLintock (1899; London: Penguin Books, 2003), 150.
4.) Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, The Communist Manifesto, trans. Samuel Moore (1848; London: Penguin Classics, 1967), 78, 94.
5.) Ibid.
6.) Ibid., 83.
7.) Jacques Derrida, Specters of Marx: the State of the Debt, the Work of Mourning, and the New International, trans. Peggy Kamuf (1993; New York: Routledge, 2006), 57.
8.) I am thinking of Mike Kelleys The Uncanny (1993; Cologne: Walther König 2004), Christoph Grunenberg’s Gothic: Transmutations of Horror in Late-Twentieth-Century Art (Boston: Institute of Contemporary Art, 1997), and Paul Schimmel’s Helter Skelter: L. A. Art in the 1990s, ed. Catherine Gudis (Los Angeles: Museum of Contemporary Art, 1992), which had the subtitle Art of the Living Dead).
9.) David Deitcher: „Social Aesthetics,“ in Democracy: A Project by Group Material, ed. Brian Wallis (New York: DIA Art Foundation, 1990), 37. (Deitcher erroneously states that Dawn of the Dead appeared in 1979; the correct year is 1978. I have corrected this in the quotation.)
10.) Franco Moretti, “Dialectic of Fear,“ in Signs Taken for Wonders: On the Sociology of Literary Forms, trans. Susan Fischer, David Forgacs, and David Miller (London: Verso, 1983), 84.
11.) Steven Shaviro, The Cinematic Body (1993; Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2006), 91.
12.) Brian Holmes, „The Affectivist Manifesto: Artistic Critique in the 21st Century,“ in Escape the Overcode: Activist Art in the Control Society (Eindhoven: Van Abbemuseum; Zagreb: What, How & for Whom, 2009), 14.
13.) See Julia Kristeva, Powers of Horror: An Essay on Abjection, trans. Leon S. Roudiez (New York: Columbia University Press, 1982).
14.) Hal Foster, The Return of the Real (Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press, 1996), 156.
15.) Jean and John L. Comaroff, „Alien-Nation: Zombies, Immigrants and Millennial Capitalism,“ South Atlantic Quarterly 101, no. 4 (Fall 2002): 779–805. I am grateful to Kodwo Eshun for this reference. The allegorical impulse behind bringing the zombie back to the Marxian concept of alienation derives from the dynamics of the zombie’s ruinous (lack of) existence. Thus George Romero’s famous trilogy is a sequence of allegorical variation: a critique of racist America (Night), a critique of consumerism (Dawn), and a critique with feminist overtones (Day).
16.) See Gilles Deleuze and Félix Guattari: Anti-Oedipus: Capitalism and Schizophrenia, trans. Robert Hurley, Mark Seem, and Helen R. Lane (1972; Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1983).
17.) See also my introduction in the exhibition guide A History of Irritated Material (London: Raven Row, 2010).
18.) Karl Marx, “Estranged Labour,“ in Economic and Philosophical Manuscripts of 1844, available at http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1844/manuscripts/labour.htm.
19.) Franco „Bifo“ Berardi, The Soul at Work: From Alienation to Autonomy, trans. Francesca Cadel and Mecchia Giuseppina (New York: Semiotext(e), 2009), 23.
20.) Deleuze and Guattari: Anti-Oedipus: Capitalism and Schizophrenia, 335.
21.) Wade Davis, The Serpent and the Rainbow (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1985), 80.
22.) Ibid., 139.
23.) See also my article “Brains“ in Muhtelif no. 4 (2008).
24.) Max Brooks, World War Z: An Oral History of the Zombie War (New York: Gerald and Duckworth, 2007), 96.
25.) See Berardi, The Soul at Work, 21.
26.) In the Spanish translation the body snatchers are ultracuerpos: ultrabodies, as if particularly well-adapted mutations.
27.) See also my „Kunst er Norm“ (Aarhus: Jutland Art Academy, 2008).
28.) James H. Gilmore and B. Joseph Pine II, The Experience Economy: Work is Theatre and Every Business a Stage (Boston: Harvard Business School Press, 1999), 16.
29.) Ibid., 175.
30.) See the Aarhus University, Faculty of Humanities website, http://studieguide.au.dk/kandidat_dk.cfm?fag=1062.
31.) Diedrich Diederichsen, Eigenblutdoping: Selbstverwertung, Künstlerromantik, Partizipation (Cologne: Kiepenheuer & Witsch, 2008).
32.) Zˇizˇek discusses the zombie in terms of suffering. Of Romero’s Night of the Living Dead, he writes: „The „undead“ are not portrayed as embodiments of pure evil, of a simple drive to kill or revenge, but as sufferers, pursuing their victims with an awkward persistence, colored by a kind of infinite sadness.“ The dead make their melancholic return because they haven’t been properly buried – just like ghosts, zombies return „as collectors of some unpaid symbolic debt.“ Zˇizˇek points out that „the return of the dead signifies that they cannot find their proper place in the text of tradition,“ an insight that we can use for our own sociological ends. Similarly, the experience commodity cannot find its place in the text of tradition and culture, inasmuch as this is what the experience economy is undoing. Slavoj Zˇizˇek, Looking Awry: An Introduction to Jacques Lacan through Popular Culture (Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press, 1992), 22-23.
33.) Shaviro, The Cinematic Body, 84.
34.) Quoted from Gilles Deleuze and Félix Guattari, Qu’est-ce que la philosophie (Paris: Éditions de Minuit, 1991), 70.
As a profession, contemporary art occupies a special position. Lacking a clear standard of craftsmanship, it is not a real métier: neither technical nor aesthetic criteria exist that can help identify a ‘competent work of art’. In this respect contemporary visual art differs from other art forms, such as music or dance, that still have solid minimum criteria for technique and skill. Aspiring musicians who need help distributing their new songs or albums may partner with a Distrokid distributor.
Should artists be able to hold a hammer? In contemporary art even insiders rarely agree about criteria of artistic quality. A particular artist’s work may be judged as pathetic wreckage by some and at the same time as a revolutionary new aesthetic by others. This lack of consensus about quality and artistic merit will continue to provide material for Gerrit Komrij to write cynical newspaper columns. It is, however, actually a fascinating characteristic that makes the contemporary artist an unexpected role model in today’s society.
At the moment, we see around us a real, overall crisis of competence. The most distressing examples of this have shown up in the financial sector, with banks, investors and insurance companies (‘The incompetence is baffling,’ according to financial markets supervisor Hans Hoogervorst, last April). Major infrastructural projects that have stranded or failed completely also indicate a fundamental lack of expertise, in this case on the part of government authorities and project developers. ‘When the government stopped building bridges and roads, knowledge and expertise shifted to market players,’ according to the city of Almere’s alderman, Adri Duivesteijn (NRC Handelsblad, 12 December 2009). But those market players themselves also seem to be failing. Contractors and subcontractors building the sheet piling for Amsterdam’s new metro line have made tremendous blunders, with well-publicized, disastrous consequences. From other sectors of society, including elementary education and forensic psychiatry, painful cases of incompetence are being reported as well.
Universities, colleges, government bodies and other organizations are meanwhile obsessed by the phantom of ‘excellence’. But the more they repeat this mantra, beating the drum of the knowledge economy, the clearer it becomes that society as a whole finds itself in a crisis of competence.
Incompetence is certainly a thing of every age. The current crisis may be due to the fact that technical, managerial and economic systems have become so complex and intertwined that minor incidents are more likely to have far-reaching consequences. Automation has in any case proven to be no remedy for the unreliable human factor. In fact, it only multiplies the consequences of human failure.
There is also a clear ideological component. Within the neoliberal network economy, knowledge tends to dissolve in a quick succession of temporary projects, causing a loss of focus and concentration. The durable institutional logic of the state, the school or the museum evaporates in an ever more rapid sequence of reorganizations and management trends. To control and innovate the organization itself has become an obsession that is making managers lose sight of more substantial tasks.
In this context, the contemporary artist is an interesting role model. In a universe of increasing incompetence, only artists know how to make their lack of expertise productive. Contemporary artists are professionals without a profession, craftspeople without a craft, dilettantes with infinite potential. Only artists routinely subject the professional content of their discipline to debate, as part of their everyday practice. With each new work they make, artists embrace the crisis of competence instead of shifting it to others, as is the case in most other domains. They accept complete responsibility, in defiance of the neoliberal tendency to delegate and outsource. By definition, the creation of a work of art entails a critical test of the criteria of creative competence and artistic skill. Thus visual art can be considered as a form of societal meta-production: any contemporary work of art is like a condensed re-enactment of the crisis of competence in a public context.
What are the implications for art schools? The ideal visual art curriculum neither denies nor conceals the lack of substance at the heart of the artistic profession, nor does it anxiously try to renew or reconstruct some lost craft. Instead it makes this fundamental condition the focal point of a permanently reflective practice. However paradoxically, the true competence of the artist is the ability to work with his or her own incompetence. Art students have to learn to face the indeterminate nature of their profession, without recourse to generally valid methods and techniques.
In the mundane reality of both politics and business, such critical capacity has been lost. Due to pressure from voters, shareholders, consumers and the media, the fear of making mistakes has overtaken all other concerns. Even if the contemporary artist is not able to come up with a general solution to this dilemma, the artistic attitude in dealing with (in)competence is well worth a closer look. Art education may be the only place where this particular type of ‘competency training’ exists.
Translated from the Dutch by Mari Shields.
Wiederabdruck
Dieser Text erschien zuerst in: Pascal Gielen & Camiel van Winkel: ‘De kunstenaar als rolmodel in tijden van competentiecrisis’, in: Metropolis M 5 (October/November 2010), pp. 17-18. Englische Übersetzung: http://metropolism.com/magazine/2010-no5/de-kunstenaar-als-rolmodel-in-ti/english [7.5.2013].
1.) Gemeint sind die sattsam bekannten Richard-Florida-Thesen, dass kreative Produktion einen urbanen Standort attraktiv für andere Produktionen macht.
Wiederabdruck
Dieser Text erschien zuerst in: Menke, Christoph; Rebentisch Juliane (Hrsg.): Kreation und Depression. Freiheit im gegenwärtigen Kapitalismus, Kulturverlag Kadmos: Berlin 2012, S. 118–128.
In Europa waren die ersten drei Nachkriegsjahrzehnte durch die Suche nach einem politischen Projekt geprägt, das die kapitalistische Umstrukturierung der sozialen Beziehungen eindämmen sollte. Die Protestbewegung des Mai 1968 stellt in gewisser Hinsicht den Höhe-punkt der damit verbundenen Kritik am Kapitalismus dar. Die an die Tradition der Arbeiterbewegung -anschließende Sozialkritik war aber keineswegs die einzige Form der Kritik, die diese Protestbewegung anfachte. Mit ihr betrat auch eine ganz andere Form der Kritik die gesellschaftliche Bühne, die ich als Künstlerkritik bezeichnen möchte, um ihre Verankerung im Milieu der Bohème zum Ausdruck zu bringen. Während die Sozialkritik primär auf die Lösung sozioökonomischer Probleme durch Verstaatlichung und Umverteilung zielte, kreiste die Künstlerkritik um ein Ideal der individuellen Autonomie, der Selbstverwirklichung und der Kreativität, das im Widerspruch zu allen Formen hierarchischer Machtverhältnisse und sozialer Kontrolle steht. Aus Sicht der Verteidiger des Kapitalismus bot diese zweite Form der Kritik allerdings den Vorteil, durch gewisse Umdeutungen und Glättungen mit einem liberal gemäßigten Kapitalismus durchaus vereinbar zu sein.
In der Welt der Unternehmen und der Arbeit ist diese Umdeutung größtenteils durch die Vordenker neuer Formen des Managements geleistet worden, die einen neuen Geist des Kapitalismus propagierten, der auch die Erfahrungen der 1960er und 1970er Jahre integrieren sollte. Diese Form der Krisenbewältigung war gerade dort erfolgreich, wo die Ansprüche der Sozialkritik abgeblockt worden waren. An die Stelle einer grundsätzlichen Kritik am Arbeitsverhältnis trat die panische Angst, überhaupt keine dauerhafte Arbeit mehr zu finden. Parallel zu dieser verschärften Auslieferung der Arbeiterschaft an den Kapitalismus ist die traditionelle Arbeiterbewegung zusammengebrochen – ihr liefen die Mitglieder weg, da sie angesichts der neuen Produktionsformen und der Angst vor der Arbeitslosigkeit kaum mehr Erfolge vorweisen konnte und durch den »real existierenden Sozialismus« in eine Glaubwürdigkeitskrise geraten war.
In dieser historischen Situation breitete sich der -Kapitalismus, unterstützt durch technologische Innovationen, mit einer präzedenzlosen Intensität und Schnelligkeit aus, und zwar nicht nur in bisher nicht-kapitalistischen Gesellschaften, sondern auch in unseren Gesellschaften: In historisch vom Kapitalismus verschonten Berufsfeldern, Milieus und Regionen wurden die sozialen Beziehungen dem Profitstreben und die alltäglichen Erfahrungen der Kalkulierbarkeit unterworfen. Der Widerstand gegen den Kapitalismus und die Kritik an ihm ist aber auf die moralischen, kognitiven und physischen Ressourcen angewiesen, die einst alternative Lebensformen und die familiale und schulische Erziehung bereitstellten, als sie den Normen des Kapitalismus noch nicht untergeordnet waren. Diese Ressourcen scheinen heute zu versiegen. Und wie könnte es auch anders sein, in einer Zeit, in der der Kapitalismus eine zweite Jugend erlebt, indem er sich alles aneignet, was einst sein Außen, seine Authentizitätsreserven darstellte, und es – als »Konfitüre nach Großmutters Art«, »echte Gefühle« und »Abenteuertourismus« – in ökonomische Ressourcen verwandelt, die im Profitstreben verwertbar sind.
Beziehungen knüpfen, Netze weben
Besondere Beachtung unter den Dispositiven, die mit der Herausbildung des neuen Geistes des Kapitalismus verbunden sind, verdient die Kultur des Projekts. Sie steht im Mittelpunkt jener neuen Formen der Rechtfertigung, die den Kapitalismus gegen die immer neu aufbrandenden Wellen der Kritik abschirmen sollen, indem sie bestimmte Aspekte dieser Kritik integrieren. Dabei geht sie einher mit einer neuartigen Vorstellung von Ökonomie und von Gesellschaft im allgemeinen, die sich um die Metapher des Netzes rankt: An die Stelle eines homogenen und klar abgegrenzten Raums tritt ein offenes Netz, in dem die einzelnen Punkte mannigfaltige Verbindungen eingehen können.
Diese neue Ordnung der Rechtfertigung können wir im Anschluss an die Managementliteratur als »projektbasiert« bezeichnen. Damit ist eine Unternehmensstruktur gemeint, in der eine Vielzahl von Projekten völlig unterschiedliche Personen zusammenbringt, die zum Teil auch an mehreren Projekten gleichzeitig arbeiten. Da Projekte immer einen Anfang und ein Ende haben, lösen die verschiedensten Projekte einander ab und setzen die Arbeitsgruppen stets neu zusammen. Analog hierzu lässt sich auch von einer projektbasierten Sozialstruktur sprechen. Dabei kommt der projektbasierten Rechtfertigungsordnung die Funktion zu, die neue netzwerkartige und konnektionistische Welt normativen Einschränkungen zu unterwerfen, denen zufolge alle sozialen Beziehungen im Einklang mit der Logik des Projekts zu stehen haben.
Von besonderer Wichtigkeit für die Etablierung von Netzwerken ist in diesem Gefüge die Figur des Vermittlers. Auf den Wert seiner Aktivität kann sich jeder beziehen, der »Beziehungen knüpft« und sich am »Weben des Netzes« beteiligt. Das neue Regime der Rechtfertigung stellt zudem Prinzipien bereit, auf die sich die Urteile über die Größe und Kleine – d. h. über die relative Wertschätzung – stützen können. Dabei handelt es sich bei dem Prinzip der Äquivalenz, an dem sich die Größe von Personen und Dingen bemessen lässt, um das Maß der Aktivität, das alle anderen Unterscheidungen – wie die zwischen Arbeit, Stabilität, Lohnabhängigkeit und ihren Gegenteilen – verdrängt. Die Aktivität richtet sich darauf, neue Projekte zu generieren oder sich in von anderen initiierte Projekte einzubringen. Da Projekte aber nicht außerhalb sozialer Begegnungen existieren können, besteht die Aktivität par excellence darin, sich in Projekte einzufügen, die eigene Isolierung zu überwinden und die Chance auf neue Begegnungen mit anderen Akteuren zu erhöhen. Diese Aktivität manifestiert sich in Projekten aller Art, die zeitgleich oder sukzessive durchgeführt werden können, aber stets vorübergehender Natur bleiben. Das Leben erscheint dann als eine Abfolge von Projekten und ist umso wertvoller, je stärker sich die Projekte voneinander unterscheiden. Was zählt, ist das Entwickeln von Aktivitäten – und unter allen Umständen ist zu vermeiden, dass einem die Projekte und Ideen ausgehen, dass man nichts mehr im Blick oder in Vorbereitung hat, dass man zu keiner Gruppe gehört, die der Wille, »etwas zu unternehmen« zusammenbringt. Eben weil das Projekt eine Form des Übergangs ist, passt es so gut in die Netzwelt: Durch Projekte knüpft man Verbindungen, und arbeitet mit an der Expansion des Netzes.
»Groß« und »klein«
Wer in diesem Dispositiv der Rechtfertigung als »groß« gelten will, muss sich als anpassbar und flexibel erweisen. Damit ist er beschäftigungsfähig, im Unternehmen also eigenständig dazu in der Lage, sich in neue Projekte einzufügen. Er ist aktiv und autonom, geht Risiken ein, um neue, verheißungsvolle Kontakte zu knüpfen, und sucht stets nach neuen Informationen, um redundante Kontakte zu vermeiden. Diese Eigenschaften reichen aber noch nicht aus, um zu Recht als »groß« zu -gelten, da sie auch gänzlich opportunistisch als rein individuelle Erfolgsstrategie eingesetzt werden können. In einer Rechtfertigungsordnung kann man aber nur als »groß« gelten, wenn man nicht als reiner »Netzwerk-opportunist«, sondern im Dienste des Gemeinwohls handelt – das ist eine der normativen Einschränkungen. In der projektbasierten Polis muss man dementsprechend in der Lage sein, die anderen mitzureißen, indem man ihr Vertrauen gewinnt und durch die eigenen Visionen ihren Enthusiasmus weckt. Wer »groß« sein will, muss sein Team antreiben können, ohne es autoritär lenken zu müssen. Er muss zuhören können, tolerant sein und Unterschiede respektieren. Er muss nicht nur seine eigene, sondern auch die Beschäftigungsfähigkeit seiner Mitarbeiter fortentwickeln.
Aus diesem Bild lässt sich auch ableiten, wer im Gegenzug als »klein« gilt, wer also kaum in den Genuss der Wertschätzung durch andere kommen wird. Es handelt sich um jene, die sich nicht einzubringen wissen, weil sie kein Vertrauen erwecken, die nicht kommunizieren können, weil sie verschlossen sind, die -antiquierten Ideen anhängen und autoritär oder intolerant sind. Inflexibilität ist ihr größter Makel. Alles, was ihre Mobilität einschränkt, erhöht ihre Inflexibilität: etwa die Bindung an einen Beruf, eine Familie, eine Institution oder eine Region. Wer »klein« ist, befindet sich nicht auf der Suche nach Netzwerken und neuen Kontakten. Deshalb ist er von der Exklusion bedroht, die in der schönen neuen Netzwerkwelt dem sozialen Tod gleichkommt.
In der projektbasierten Rechtfertigungsordnung muss man, um »groß« zu werden, alles opfern, was die Verfügbarkeit einschränkt. Man muss darauf verzichten, ein Projekt zu haben, das das ganze Leben dauert (eine Berufung, ein Gewerbe, eine Ehe), und mobil bleiben. Man muss zum Nomaden werden. Um der Forderung der »Leichtigkeit« zu entsprechen, muss man auf jede Stabilität, Verwurzelung oder Bindung an Personen und Dinge verzichten. In diesem Sinne »leicht« zu sein bedeutet, keine institutionellen Verpflichtungen zu haben, der Autonomie den Vorzug vor der Sicherheit zu geben, aber auch sich vom Ballast der eigenen Leidenschaften und Werte zu befreien.
In einer solchen vernetzten Welt sind die Individuen primär durch ihre Verbindungen zu anderen definiert. Deshalb werden sie permanent von zwei Sorgen umgetrieben, die sie in entgegengesetzte Richtungen treiben: der Sorge, dass es ihnen nicht gelingt, neue Verbindungen zu knüpfen oder zumindest die alten zu erhalten, also marginalisiert und ausgeschlossen zu werden, und der Sorge, sich in der unüberschaubaren Vielzahl von Aktivitäten zu verlieren und damit die Einheit des eigenen Lebens, ja die eigene Existenz zu riskieren. Das angstbesetzte Erfordernis, man selbst zu sein, wird einem heute als moralischer Imperativ von Kindheit an eingebläut – setzt die Individuen in der gegenwärtigen Situation aber starken Spannungen aus. Die Selbstverwirklichung erfordert das Engagement in Aktivitäten und Projekten, deren vorübergehender und uneinheitlicher Charakter das Selbst der Gefahr des Wesensverlusts aussetzt. Zugleich findet das Individuum gerade in seinen Projekten ein Minimum an Identität, das es stets von neuem gegen die Gefahr der Fragmentierung in Stellung bringen kann.
Die Prekarisierung des Privatlebens und das -Projekt »Kind«
Die Kultur des Projekts bezieht sich primär auf die Welt der Unternehmen. Zugleich stellt sie jedoch ein allgemeines Muster dar, das sich auf zahlreiche andere Bereiche auszudehnen begonnen hat. Die Metapher des Netzes wird immer mehr zu einer allgemeinen Vorstellung der ganzen Gesellschaft. So beschreiben Probleme der Bindung, der Beziehung, der Begegnung, des Bruchs, des Verlusts, der Isolierung und der Trennung die gegenwärtigen Veränderungen des Privatlebens, insbesondere im Bereich der Intimbeziehungen und der Familie. Auch hier finden wir – ganz wie in der Arbeitswelt – eine zunehmende Spannung zwischen den Anforderungen der Autonomie und dem Verlangen nach Sicherheit.
Die Ausdehnung der Kultur des Projekts auf das so genannte Privatleben in seinen affektiven und intimen Dimensionen lässt sich etwa an der emotionalen, sexuellen und familialen Entwicklung schwangerer Frauen nachzeichnen – und an ihrer Entscheidung, das Kind zu bekommen oder abzutreiben. Der Prekarität der beruflichen Situation entspricht immer öfter die Prekarität der persönlichen Situation. Die als traditionell bezeichnete Form des emotionalen und sexuellen Lebens im Rahmen der Ehe wird zunehmend durch eine projektbasierte Organisation des Privatlebens abgelöst, die sich durch einen ständigen, aber komplexen Wechsel zwischen Zölibat, Zusammenleben, Ehe, Scheidung etc. auszeichnet.
Das unabweisbare Erfordernis, ein Sexualleben zu haben, das heute eine zumindest implizite Bedingung sozialer Normalität darstellt, hat dabei keineswegs »Libertinage« und »Ausschweifungen« zur Folge, sondern die Suche nach stabilen Bindungen, denen zumindest eine gewisse Dauer zukommt. Wie im Berufsleben – nur mit noch größerer Intensität – herrscht hier die Angst vor der Einsamkeit, vor der Exklusion von jeglicher Bindung. Deshalb wird der Moment des Übergangs von einer Beziehung zur anderen zu einer so furchterregenden (und zugleich aufregenden) Prüfung, wie das auch für den Übergang zwischen verschiedenen Projekten gilt. Und je älter man wird, desto wahrscheinlicher erscheint die Möglichkeit, marginalisiert und vom Zugang zur Intimität der Anderen ausgeschlossen zu werden.
Der Kinderwunsch und das Engagement in dem immer öfter tatsächlich so bezeichneten »Projekt der Elternschaft« muss heute mit Bezug auf die netzwerkbasierte Welt verstanden werden. Das Gleiche gilt für die Praxis der Abtreibung. Es geht hier um ein Projekt, das robuster, langlebiger und weniger leicht aufzulösen ist als die affektiven und professionellen Projekte, an denen man sich bisher beteiligt hat: das Projekt »Kind«. In einer konnektionistischen Welt wird dieses Projekt zu einem Bollwerk gegen die Fragmentierung und stellt einen vielversprechenden Weg auf der Suche nach einem »authentischeren« Leben dar. Eine solche »grundlose« und »nicht strategische« Entscheidung für eine Veränderung des eigenen Lebens, die durchaus »unbe-rechenbar« ist, steht im Gegensatz zu den gewöhnlichen, kurzlebigen, eigeninteressierten Entscheidungen, die sich alle – auch wenn sie nicht unmittelbar in Geld übersetzt werden können und es in ihnen um Personen und nicht um Dinge geht – jener für unsere Gesellschaften exemplarischen Entscheidung annähern: der Kon-sumentscheidung. Die Entscheidung für ein Kind soll den alltäglichen Entscheidungen entgegengesetzt werden, die sich dem Vorwurf aussetzen, unpersönlich, berechnend, standardisiert, unnatürlich, also: unauthentisch zu sein. Die Entscheidung gegen das Kind und für die Abtreibung kann hingegen als Reaktion auf das Scheitern des Projekts der Elternschaft verstanden werden, als dessen Abbruch aufgrund der mangelnden Bereitschaft der beteiligten Parteien, sich auf das Projekt wirklich einzulassen.
»Lechts und rinks« zwischen Ökonomie und -Bio-politik
Ein Grund für das Überleben des Kapitalismus liegt in seiner Anpassungsfähigkeit, etwa in seiner Fähigkeit, die Künstlerkritik durch eine Kultur des Projekts zu integrieren. Da der Kapitalismus von Grund auf amoralisch ist – er kennt keine andere Forderung als die der unbegrenzten Akkumulation von Kapital auf formell friedlichem Wege –, muss er sich einerseits zum Zwecke seiner Rechtfertigung auf andere Wertordnungen beziehen. Andererseits ermöglicht ihm gerade die Einbeziehung der gegen ihn gerichteten Kritiken die Selbsttransformation. So kann es kaum verwundern, dass auch der Kapitalismus »Autonomie« und »Befreiung« vor allem im Bereich der Sexualität einen immer größeren Wert zuspricht. Das wiederum führt zu einer solchen Komplexität der Strukturkonflikte der sozialen Welt, dass alte Trennungslinien – insbesondere die Unterscheidung von »rechts« und »links« – zu verschwimmen drohen. Diese Unterscheidung hat sich im vergangenen Jahrhundert entlang einer ökonomischen Achse entwickelt, auf der es insbesondere um Fragen der Eigentumsrechte und der Produktionsbedingungen ging. Auf -dieser Achse steht dem Wirtschaftsliberalismus, der Achtung individueller Rechte, der ökonomischen Autonomie sowie einem unternehmerischen Idealismus (»Wenn man wirklich Erfolg haben will, kann man es schaffen.«) auf der Rechten das Kollektiveigentum, die Betonung sozialer Rechte, der Determinismus (die soziale Position bestimmt über die Erfolgswahrscheinlichkeit) und der Materialismus der Linken gegenüber.
Für ein Verständnis der gegenwärtigen politischen Situation reichen die Fragen und Antworten, die auf der ökonomischen Achse entscheidend sind, jedoch nicht aus. Mit der Ausweitung des Kapitalismus auf die ehemals als »privat« bezeichnete Welt des Familien-, Sexual- und Gefühlslebens, die durch neue Biotechnologien noch beschleunigt wird, bildet sich ein neues Feld sozialer Kämpfe heraus, das man im Anschluss an Michel Foucault als biopolitische Achse bezeichnen kann: Hier geht es nicht um die Produktion von Gütern, sondern um die Produktion des Lebens, insbesondere menschlicher Wesen.
Einige der bemerkenswertesten und öffentlichkeitswirksamsten politischen Kämpfe des letzten Jahrzehnts finden sich auf dieser zweiten Achse – ob es nun um die Abtreibung, die gleichgeschlechtliche Ehe, die künstliche Fortpflanzung und überzählige Embryonen geht oder um noch viel zentralere Konflikte wie jene um die männliche Herrschaft oder die Gültigkeit der Zuschreibung von Geschlechteridentitäten. Diese Situation führt uns in folgende Paradoxie: Wechselt man von der ökonomischen auf die biopolitische Achse, so kehren sich die Unterscheidungsmerkmale zwischen rechts und links einfach um. Auf der biopolitischen Achse sind die gegenwärtig von der Linken vertretenen Positionen größtenteils ultraliberal. Sie betonen die individuelle Autonomie und das Recht eines jeden, mit dem eigenen Körper zu machen, was er oder sie will. Auch in der Dekonstruktion aller »natürlichen« Determiniertheiten – und damit jedes Bezugs auf die materiellen Bedingungen des menschlichen Lebens – liegt ein gewisser Idealismus. Im Gegensatz hierzu findet man auf Seiten der Rechten eine Betonung des kollektiven Charakters biopolitischer Entscheidungen, die nicht nur die einzelnen Individuen, sondern »das Schicksal des Menschengeschlechts« beträfen.
Auf der ökonomischen Achse richtet sich die Linke gegen die Kultur des Projekts, die auf eine bloße Ausweitung des Neoliberalismus reduziert wird, der man mit neuen institutionellen Garantien begegnen müsse. Auf der biopolitischen Achse zielt die linke Kritik hingegen gerade auf jene Positionen, ob sie nun von staatlicher oder gesellschaftlicher Seite kommen, die bestrebt sind, die Deregulierung und Entinstitutionalisierung der Reproduktionsbedingungen menschlichen Lebens zu begrenzen. Sobald es also nicht um die Arbeit, sondern das so genannte »Privatleben« geht, zeigt sich die Linke der Kultur des Projekts gegenüber keineswegs abgeneigt.
Diese Umkehrung der Positionen zwischen der Rechten und der Linken beim Übergang von der ökonomischen auf die biopolitische Achse ist sicherlich eine der Ursachen für die Schwächung der Kritik am Kapitalismus. Damit hindert sie jedoch auch die Wiederherstellung eines Feldes entschlossener sozialer Kämpfe, deren Ziel eine Neubestimmung der Formen der Produktion und der Konzeptionen der Produktivität, eine weniger ungerechte Verteilung des Zugangs zu elementaren sozialen Gütern und eine Verringerung der gegenwärtigen ökonomischen und sozialen Prekarität sein müsste. Wie sollte sich heute eine kohärente Kritik des Kapitalismus und insbesondere der neuen Formen der Ungleichheit und der Prekarität denken lassen, die mit Bezug auf die Logik des Projekts gerechtfertigt werden, wenn man nicht wahrnimmt, wie eng die kapitalistische Umstrukturierung der Arbeitswelt mit einem neuen Verständnis des Gefühlsund Sexuallebens zusammenhängt, das ebenfalls der Kultur des Projekts verpflichtet ist?
Natürlich wäre es ein schwerer Fehler, die ökonomischen Konflikte auszublenden und die ganze Aufmerksamkeit auf die biopolitischen Fragen zu richten. Aber auch deren Gewicht sollte man nicht unterschätzen, denn an den beiden extremen Enden der biopolitischen Achse entwickeln sich Fanatismen, die sehr wohl zu einer neuen Form der Barbarei führen könnten. Einer fundamentalistischen Barbarei steht dabei eine andere gegenüber, in der die Technologie dem Projekt einer unbeschränkten Befreiung zuarbeitet, das mit dem Kapitalismus gemeinsame Sache macht. Auch auf dieser Achse wird ein dritter Weg deshalb dringend benötigt.
Aus dem Französischen von Robin Celikates
Wiederabdruck
Der Text erschien zuerst im April 2007 in der zweiten Ausgabe der Zeitschrift polar. Magazin für Politik, Theorie und Alltag im Campus Verlag, www.polar-zeitschrift.de
Wiederabdruck
Serpentine Gallery Manifesto Marathon, 2008