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Today, volunteers translate documents, write encyclopedia articles, moderate online discussion groups, fill in surveys, and even provide legal or medical expertise. The Texas Sheriffs Border Coalition used web-based volunteers for their project Virtual Border Watch,2 and a similar setup of surveillance cameras and distributed monitors, called Internet Eyes,3 is used to fight shoplifting in the United Kingdom.
There is, of course, a long tradition of people volunteering in hospitals, soup kitchens, museums, and non-profit organizations. Free labor has taken hold throughout the economy. In fast food restaurants, customers took on some of the work that was traditionally performed by waiters. In grocery stores, shoppers “opt in” to use machines that scan their purchases and accept payment, tasks that were previously performed by a cashier. In the fashion industry, companies like Forever 21 appropriate street graffiti for the design of their clothes without crediting or paying the artist.
Or, take the runaway leader in exploitative digital labor: Amazon.com’s Mechanical Turk (MTurk). You don’t have to be a media buff to join MTurk’s “elastic workforce” and “people can get paid by the penny or nickel to do tasks that a computer can’t figure out how to do but that even the dimmest bulb, if he’s a human, can do.”4 In one chilling instance, MTurk workers made $ 1.45 an hour, which is exploitative no matter if workers feel used.
Using MTurk, the artist xtine burrough created Mechanical Olympics, which she calls an open version of the Olympic Games where anyone can play and vote for gold medal winners. The Sheep Market,5 by artist Aaron Koblin, is a phalanx of 10,000 sheep, all drawn by random strangers through Amazon.com’s task-distribution mechanism.
While free labor has taken hold throughout the economy, the Internet really is the apex of this phenomenon. “Crowdsourcing,” a term that is sometimes used in this context, describes practices that were traditionally performed by one paid person but can now be more effectively executed by large numbers of people who frequently do not get paid. Often, the term is incorrectly applied to peer-production projects, as I will explain later.
“Crowdsourcing” is a thorny practice that simultaneously inspires unambiguous excitement about the potentials of the Open Web and moral indignation about the exploitation of new formations of labor. While this complexity is not always acknowledged, “crowdsourcing” is mobilized in the service of liberal ideologies bur it is also employed in support of non-commercial and explicitly anti-capitalist projects.
Etymologically, “crowdsourcing“ relates to “outsourcing.“ Companies outsource subcontract tasks to hordes of people online who may get the job done swiftly and at rock-bottom costs. However, the term „crowdsourcing“ mischaracterizes projects that bring together peers to create something because there is no centralized entrepreneur who subcontracts tasks.
While the potential for information monopolists to profit from taking ownership of our data and time is ever-present, it is not always realized. Already in the 1910s, advocates of scientific management, Frank Bunker Gilbreth, Sr. and Lillian Gilbreth, conducted time and motion studies, examining every manual twist and turn of workers. Their goal, however, was not merely efficiency and profit (often seen as Frederick Taylor’s chief objective) but ultimately the welfare of laborers. Similarly today, “crowdsourcing” can serve the public good, but it also makes human beings available as resources for the maximization of profits.
The discussion about digital labor is sometimes associated with a dourness that frames all work as exploitation, therefore crushing the pleasure of those who generate and submit content. Why would they remix a video or write a piece of software if their labor of love merely fills the pockets of the mega-rich? One reason for concern is that the flow of information is largely invisible and exploitation is rarely obvious, In the face of the booming data-mining industry, we should not think of ourselves as tourists who tip their hosts in the land of network culture without considering the broader questions about exploitation, pleasure, labor, possibility, and utopia.
Since the privatization of the Internet backbone in the early 1990s, centralized hubs became magnets for online traffic and by the end of the decade, the Internet starred to deliver on the promise of serving low-friction marketplaces. In 2004, the Italian media theorist Tiziana Terranova6 explained that the so-called new economy is built on the cultural and mental labor of Internet users, and only five years later, the Web 2.0 ideology starred to lend a patina of novelty to long-existing technologies that made it remarkably easier to play online.
“Crowdsourcing” is just one aspect of this labor market. It is one form of digital labor that has the goal of distributing the workload from one (usually paid) individual to many (frequently unwaged) volunteers. In his 2006 article in Wired Magazine,7 Jeff Howe first coined the term. Wikinomics co-author Don Tapscott proclaims that the old, ironclad vessels of the industrial era sink under the crushing waves where smart firms connect to external ideas and energies to regain the buoyancy they require to survive.8 Crowdsource-or-perish: learn how to instrumentalize the cognitive and geographic surplus of Internet users and your business will thrive. For Michel Bauwens of the Peer-to-Peer Foundation, “crowdsourcing” reflects the rest of capitalism. He defines it as “the most capitalist model [of digital labor], which … captures part of the value created by … outside producers.”9 The private firm profits from the public pool.
Exploitation, a term that means many things to many people, doesn’t only take place by way of data collection, privacy invasion, and utilization of our social graph; it is also about cultural power, exerted all across society. As Tapscott suggests, “this is a new mode of production that is emerging in the heart of the most advanced economies in the world-producing a rich new economic landscape.”10 While Bauwens rejects the corporate framing of co-creation, he stresses the potential of public-minded peer production.
In everyday parlance, “crowdsourcing” and “wisdom of the crowd” are used interchangeably, which is misleading. Crowdsourcing can but does not have to enable the “wisdom of the crowds.” American journalist James Surowiecki framed it as “aggregation of information in groups, [which results] in decisions that … are often better than what could have been made by any single member of the group.”11 “Wisdom of the crowds,” illustrated by sites like Yahoo!Answers or social-referral websites like Digg.com, is contingent on critical mass of participants and diversity of opinion.
Without airbrushing the crisis in digital labor, we need to acknowledge what legal scholar Yochai Benkler holds up as hierarchy-defying, and often unpaid, commons-based peer production.12 While commercial interests exert an iron grip on the Internet, there are also large, meaningful projects that are not market-oriented. People do not contribute to Wikipedia to make a buck, the encyclopedia benefits from the wisdom-of-the-crowd effect; it is the quintessential example of peering. An online encyclopedia that approaches four million articles in English alone “outcollaborates” commercial competitors. But Wikipedia also benefits from the dynamics of the digital economy, specifically a symbiosis with Google. Historian and philosopher Philip Mirowski reminds us that the success of Wikipedia is traceable to how the site fits into the larger business plan of commodification of the Internet.
Wikipedia materialized as a Godsend for Google’s business plan. Moreover, the supposed Chinese wall between Google and Wikipedia makes it possible for wiki-workers to think they are squirreling for the betterment of humankind, while. Google positions itself co be the premier portal for information on the web and the biggest corporate success story of the “New Information Economy.“13
Mirowski’s comment shows that Wikipedia and other projects whose contributors are not driven by profit motives are not outside the dynamics of the digital economy. The honorable wiki-work, performed by thousands, also, indirectly, aids corporate titans like Google. Nor all projects thrive on the collaborate-or-perish principle and only few get around paying “rent“ to corporate landowners. Peer projects are not outside the digital economy even if producers are not driven by market motives.
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A chief scientist at the software company Arbor Networks reports that in 2009 “30 large companies – ’hyper giants’ like Limelight, Facebook, Google, Microsoft and YouTube – generate and consume a disproportionate 30% of all Internet traffic.”14 In his new book The Master Switch (2010), legal scholar Tim Wu identifies a clear and present danger of this centralization. Using the radio industry, the early telephone industry, and the film industry as historical reference points, he analyzes the risk of the conglomeration of today’s main information monopolists into a singular consolidated monopoly. The smaller the number of companies that hold most of the traffic/attention on the Internet, the greater becomes their power to flip the master switch, which may entail paying their executives salaries far in excess of their social worth (in fact, more than any human could possibly be worth) while other actors only receive pitiful slices of the accumulated wealth. In Common as Air (2010), Lewis Hyde asks if there can be a capitalist commons, a commons inside or adjacent to capitalism. For Benkler, networked peer production is such an alternative, but who owns and profits from the platforms on which most online sociality is playing out and the above statistic give a clear answer: the vast majority of people who spend time online do so on corporate real estate; their files are not stored on individual servers in people’s homes. Even activist Facebook groups about the Monks in Burma or the Egyptian April 6th Youth Movement contribute to that company’s baseline. There really is no “outside” of the digital economy.
Going forward, let’s tease apart some of the dangers – what I call the violence of participation – from the promises of commons-based peer production.
The Promise
New York University professor Gabriela Coleman argues that we need to “emphasize partial, positive solutions all the while noting some of their limitations because if we’re going to criticize [capitalism/digital labor] in a wholesale sort of way, then we’re left without alternatives.”15 For Coleman, key examples include the developers of software such as Mozilla and Linux which have created these projects largely through collaborative, volunteer-run initiatives such as Debian. Debian is a project that joins more than 1,000 software developers who create various versions of the Linux operating system that can be downloaded free of charge.
Other important, positive examples of “crowdsourcing” include the Science Commons, which is a project by the Creative Commons that aims to enable scientific research by making resources easier to find and access. A shortlist of other examples of commons-based peer projects should include the private/public volunteer computing project SET1@Home, which uses networked computers worldwide to analyze radio telescope data in an experiment to find extraterrestrial intelligence.
Projects like Wikipedia, Debian developers, Science Commons, and Flickr Commons show the promise of “crowdsourcing“ as a practice that benefits the public interest. Many initiatives are hybrid; they are situated between private and public interests. Disturbingly, private and public interests grow closer and closer. Google’s re-Captcha,16 for example, is a service that helps the company to digitize books and newspapers more accurately by capturing 150,000 hours of distributed volunteer labor each day.
Yahoo, which owns the photo-sharing site Flickr, profits from public investment as more users are drawn to its service because of the wealth of government-contributed historical photographs. The Library of Congress has moved a large number of photographs to the Flickr Commons17 in hopes that Flickr users would create metadata for these images, an activity for which the Library of Congress does not have the resources. Government-provided services are therefore transformed into work performed by the public. In their spare time, citizens execute work that was traditionally financed by taxes, deepening the broad assault on the leisure time of citizens. Tax-financed workers previously performed these very services. In a system in which the public interest is an afterthought, “crowdsourcing” is used to mend systemic failures.
Various networked digital art exhibits are de facto celebrations of distributed creativity. The artists Peter Baldes and Marc Horowitz, for example, jointly take a virtual trip across the United States using Google Maps Street View. Other cultural producers ask for contributions through an open call for submissions. They become context providers who provide a vehicle for the aggregation and distribution of “crowdsourced“ artwork.
Learning to Love You More18 by Harrell Fletcher and Miranda July, for example, offers a context, a framework, for people to contribute their creativity to a platform set up by the artists who have staged exhibitions in galleries and museums with the collected material. The artist Perry Bard created Man With a Movie Camera (Global Remake),19 which is a participatory video shot by people around the world who are invited to record images interpreting the original script of Vertov’s Man With a Movie Camera and upload them to her site.
Global Lives Project20 and One Day on Earth21 are participatory documentary projects that do not highlight the facilitating (star) artists. They celebrate the possibilities of networked action and co-creativity. The Delocator22 project by the artist xtine burrough is a database of independently owned coffee shops, created by volunteer participants. All of these projects bring forth the shining potentials of “crowdsourcing.”
The Violence of Participation
Today, companies that make their boundaries porous to external ideas and human capital outperform companies that rely solely on the internal resources and capabilities.
The originator of cybernetics, Norbert Wiener, warned that the role of new technology under capitalism is to intensify the exploitation of workers.23 Indeed, the Internet is an information-generating global machine in which unwitting participants in distributed labor become the most frequent victims of exploitation. In the above quotation, Tapscott frames what I may call exploitation literacy for the twenty-first century as a necessity for the survival of companies who merely have to learn to be more receptive for raking in outside resources.24 Social software ecosystems – single labor interfaces, privatized collection points – absorb, aggregate, analyze, and sell every iota of data and generate a slice of Web wealth. On the Internet, we are all qualified to labor, and for-profit entities get “all the work without the worker.”25 Every click is monitored and big brother is (also) you, watching. Even fan creativity becomes “just another set of productions in the realm of the creative industries.”26
The artist Burak Arikan created Metamarkets27 a project that allows members to trade shares of their Social Web assets from social networking, social bookmarking, photo- and video-sharing services, creating broader awareness of the cycles of value creation.
The virtual world Second Life (SL) offers a social milieu in which consumers coproduce the products that they then consume. Environments like SL provide a context for experimentation and play – an experiential nexus, and entertaining labor interface – and then, through surreptitious tracking, seize on the things that users create. What is most astonishing is that this entire process of expropriation has been so breathtakingly normalized. The art project Invisible Threads28 by Stephanie Rothenberg and Jeff Crouse calls attention to that. Invisible Threads is based on a factory in SL in which virtual workers can produce jeans without leaving the comfort of their own home or Internet cafe.
Digital labor and domestic work, mostly shouldered by women, have much in common. Companies circumvent labor regulations if people work at home and any hour of the day could be work time. Work such as making a baby laugh or caring for the sick doesn’t result in a tangible product, which makes it easier to not think of it as labor, and consequently these activities are frequently unpaid, undervalued, and largely go unnoticed.
The inequalities between the largely unpaid workforce and the corporate hyper giants are growing. This relationship is asymmetrical and capitalizes on free labor.
The geography of this asymmetry places those who live on less than $2 a day at the bottom of the participation gap. For employers, responding to the global financial crunch, the service TxtEagle29 delivers access to a cheap labor force in sub-Saharan Africa and beyond. On their website, TxtEagle invites companies to “Harness the capacity of 2 billion people in over 80 countries to accomplish work with unprecedented speed, scale and quality.” The company interfaces workers with the overdeveloped world through their cell phones, exemplifying what Washington Post writer Matt Miller calls “Liberalism’s crisis on trade.”30 Miller asks, “Why is it ‘liberal’ or ‘progressive’ to stop poor workers abroad from using the one competitive advantage they have?” We may ask how sustainable and transformative income from companies like TxcEagle really is. Miller might be right that some workers develop marketable skills but he ignores the globalization utopia of “crowdsourcing“ because such (exploitative) labor practices would not even be possible without the uneven global development produced in the first place by the Global North.
Avenues for Action
How can we live and politicize our troubled complicity in practices of expropriation? Which values really matter to us and are worth defending?
In the struggle over the terms of our own participation and in the search for escape routes, some suggest going off the social media grid. Indian legal scholar Lawrence Liang recently asked what “would be a Facebook without faces or a Twitter without tweeters?”31 While such withdrawal sounds like a desirable escape route, participation is also a personal and professional imperative for those who are not privileged enough to be able to log off.
Is unionization a realistic way to resist the global forces that are expropriating their lives? Bottom-up transnational labor organization is still nearly non-existent and few users seem to get prickly in the face of their exploitation. Should we accompany user communities and make them aware that their rights should exceed use rights, similar to what the labor movement did in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries? We might want to rethink how click workers of the world can organize that space and see if it is possible to organize online as if it were a sweatshop.
Pointing to Negri and Hardt’s latest book Commonwealth (2009), the Austrian-Swedish scholar Christian Fuchs proposes a communist (self-managed) Internet for a communist society.32 Such a vision that builds on a full-fledged revolution is an all-or-nothing proposal, which turns us into complaining bystanders; it does not expand the capacity for action in the near future. In this introduction to the uneasy, yet widespread, concept of “crowdsourcing,” I provided a glimpse of the inequalities and vulnerabilities of expropriated publics. In the near future, change will come through policy regulation that addresses transparency, centralization, user rights beyond use rights, and raised awareness of systemic injustice. Change is also about an imagination of a new political language that puts deceiving language like “crowdsourcing” to the test. Also, artworks can play an important role; they can function as incursions that shed light on the conditions of labor and cultural production. However, critiques of digital labor, and specifically “crowdsourcing,” should move us beyond the attitude that angrily rejects what is but has no clearly articulated vision for what should be now or in the near future. What’s ahead is exhilarating: I’m fired up about the possibilities of “crowdsourcing” but also cautious.
Wiederabdruck
Dieser Text erschien zuerst in: „Net Works: Case Studies in Web Art and Design” edited by Xtine Burroughs, Routledge 2012, S. 47–54.
1.)Steve Lohr, “Unboxed: Customer Service? Ask a Volunteer,“ New York Times. Online: www.nytimes.com/2009/04/26/business/26unbox.html (last modified April 25, 2009).
2.)BlueServo: www.texasborderwacch.com (accessed September 12, 2010).
3.)Internet Eyes: http://interneteyes.co.uk (accessed September 12, 2010).
4.)Jonathan Zittrain, Jonathan Zittrain at The Internet as Playground and Factory [Video] (2009): http://vimeo.com/8203737 (accessed September 1, 2010).
5.)Aaron Koblin, The Sheep Market: www.thesheepmarket.com (accessed September 1, 2010).
6.)Tiziana Terranova, Network Culture: Politics for the Information Age, London: Pluto Press, 2004: 94.
7.)Jeff Howe, “The Rise of Crowdsourcing,” Wired Magazine 14 (2006). Online: www.wired.com/wired/archive/14.06/crowds.html (accessed November 14, 2010).
8.)Don Tapscott and Anthony D. Williams, Wikinomics: How Mass Collaboration Changes Everything, New York: Penguin, 2010: 63.
9.)Michel Bauwens, Michel Bauwens at The Internet as Playground and Factory [Video] (2009): http://vimeo.com/7919113 (accessed September l, 2010).
10.)Tapscott and Williams, op. cit.: 2 5 .
11.)James Surowiecki, The Wisdom of Crowds, New York: Anchor Books, 2005: 63.
12.)Yochai Benkler, The Wealth of Networks: How Social Production Transforms Markets and Freedom, New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2006.
13.)Philip Mirowski and Dieter Plehwe, The Road from Mont Pelerin: The Making of the Neoliberal Thought Collective, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2009: 425.
14.)Arbor Networks, the University of Michigan, and Merit Network, Two-Year Study of Global Internet Traffic Will Be Presented At NANOG47. Online: www.arbornerworks.com/en/arbornetworks-the-university-of-michigan-and-merit-network-ro-present-rwo-year-study-ofglobal-inc-2.hrml
15.)Gabriela Coleman, Gabriela Coleman at The Internet as Playground and Factory [Video] (2009): http://vimeo.com/7122412 (accessed September 1, 2010).
16.)Google, reCaptcha: www.google.com/recaptcha/learnmore (accessed September 12, 2010).
17.)Flickr, The Commons: www.flickr.com/commons (accessed September 12, 2010).
18.)Harrell Fletcher and Miranda July, Learning to Love You More: www.learningroloveyoumore.com (accessed September 12, 2010).
19.)Perry Bard, Man With a Movie Camera: The Global Remake: http://dziga.perrybard.ner (accessed September 12, 2010).
20.)Global Lives: http://globallives.org/en (accessed September 12, 2010).
21.)One Day On Earth: www.onedayonearth.org (accessed September 12, 2010).
22.)xtine burrough, Delocator: http://delocaror.ner (accessed September 12, 2010).
23.)Richard Barbrook, Imaginary Futures: From Thinking Machines to Global Villages, London: Pluto Press, 2007: 60.
24.)Tapscott and Williams, op. cit.: 21.
25.)Alex Rivera, Sleep Dealer [DVD], directed by Alex Rivera, France: Anthony Bregman, 2008.
26.)Abigail de Kosnik, Abigail de Kosnik at The Internet as Playground and Factory [Video] (2009): http://vimeo.com/7956499 (accessed September 1, 2010).
27.)Burak Arikan, MetaMarkets: http://meta-markets.com (accessed September 12, 2 010).
28.)Stephanie Rothenberg and Jeff Crouse, Invisible Threads: www.doublehappinessjeans.com/10-steps-ro-your-own-virtual-sweatshop (accessed September 12, 2010).
29.)Txteagle: http://txteagle.com (accessed September 12, 2010).
30.)Matt Miller, “Liberalism’s moral crisis on trade,” Washington Post, October 7, 2010.
31.)In his unpublished talk presented at the Open Video Conference 2010, Lawrence Liang made this comment. Online: www.openvideoconference.org/agenda
32.)Fuchs proposed a “Communist Internet in a Communist Society” in his talk at The Internet as Playground and Factory conference in November 2009. Christian Fuchs at The Internet as Playground and Factory [Video] (2009): http://vimeo.com/7954268 (accessed September 1, 2010).
Es ist interessant, diese ironische, aber zugleich didaktische Distanzierung vor dem historischen Hintergrund der Konzeptkunst und insbesondere der Appropriation Art zu betrachten, zumal sie in diesem Fall innerhalb eines Mediums stattfindet, das in der Kunst der 1960er und 1970er Jahre selbst als das Jenseits einer kritikfähigen Kulturproduktion galt. Das Spannungsverhältnis zwischen high und low ist in der Nachkriegskunst noch als durchaus krisenhaft zu verstehen. Der elitäre Warencharakter der high art wird durch kritische Künstlerinnen und Künstler zunehmend als Problem verstanden; er bestätigt das Unvermögen der künstlerischen Avantgarden, trotz der Abkehr vom auratischen Meisterstück eine gemeinsame Sprache mit der Arbeiterklasse zu finden, der ihre eigentlichen Sympathien gelten. „When […] Lichtenstein talks about his interest in the iconography of the comic strip and Richter talks about his interest in the iconography of amateur photography, both artists refer to the sources that seem to protect their own artistic production from being instantly identified with being merely a high art practice“,5 schreibt Benjamin H. D. Buchloh bereits im Rückblick 1982; zumindest im Falle Lichtensteins wäre eine solche ideologische Verteidigung seines Werks heute kaum mehr vermittelbar: Seine Zugehörigkeit zur Hochkultur wird durch den kunsthistorischen Kanon und Millionenpreise auf Auktionen bestätigt, während die Verbreitung in der Massenkultur durch Reproduktionen gesichert ist, die günstiger ausfallen können als ein handelsübliches Superhelden-Comic. Der museal-industrielle Komplex hat die ursprünglich in Lichtensteins Werk ausgedrückte Spannung von high und low also nachhaltig geklärt – aber natürlich nicht die realen gesellschaftlichen Probleme, für die diese Spannung selbst als Chiffre einstand. Aus heutiger Sicht ist anzunehmen, dass die Krise der künstlerischen Selbstbestimmung innerhalb dieses Spannungsfelds vielmehr eine allgemeinere Krise der Repräsentation verdeckte, in der hochkomplexe Verwicklungen mit einer einfachen, historisch tradierten Dichotomie belegt werden sollten. Es liegt nahe, die heutige Verwirrung um das Lokale und das Globale als Symptom einer ähnlichen Krise zu interpretieren, in der sehr konkrete, aber sehr komplexe Sachverhalte und ihre Zusammenhänge (das Arbeitsrecht unterschiedlicher Nationalstaaten, Abhängigkeiten öffentlicher Organe von der international agierenden Privatindustrie, Zugänge zu Rohstoffen, Urheberrechte etc.) mittels eines vagen, aber bei Bedarf emotionell aufladbaren Gegensatzpaares dargestellt werden – ob nun das Lokale als autarke menschliche -Gemeinschaft gegen einen gesichtslosen, totalitären Globalismus aufgerufen wird, oder die weltumspannende Solidarität des Globalen gegen einen chauvinistischen Provinzialismus.
Was bedeutet dies nun für die künstlerische Praxis, und insbesondere für die künstlerische Appropriation? Der kritische Charakter einer Aneignung, die – um verkürzt Buchlohs Interpretation des Allegorischen in der europäischen Moderne und ihren Nachfolgern wiederzugeben – auf ihren Waren- oder Gebrauchscharakter reduzierte Inhalte aus ihrem Verwertungszusammenhang reißt und somit auf eine durchaus befreiende Weise erneut entleert, bleibt nach wie vor interessant, -solange die Verwertungslogik als das dominante Modell unserer Gesellschaft gilt.6 Fraglich hingegen ist, ob die vereinfachende Repräsentation der Welt, die auf Dichotomien wie Global/Lokal baut, eine tragfähige Grundlage für eine solche kritische Rhetorik bietet, sobald sie über eine einfache Skandalisierung einzelner Sachverhalte hinausgeht. Ungeachtet der didaktischen Schlagkraft des Clips aus Conan wird mittels der ironischen -Distanz, die zum angeeigneten Material hergestellt wird, die Verwicklung sowohl des Produzenten wie der Betrachtenden des Clips in das System ausgeblendet, dessen Fehlleistung hier singulär dargestellt wird. Die entlarvende, aufklärerische Geste fordert von ihrem Publikum somit keine Verantwortlichkeit, und teilt so das Schicksal der Pop Art: Sie verliert sich zwischen der Selbstbestätigung einer bereits ‚aufgeklärten‘ Elite und ihrer eigenen Konsumierbarkeit als massenmediales Kulturprodukt.7
In diesem Sinne ist es also notwendig, die Praxis der Aneignung für die zeitgenössische Kunst neu zu definieren. Eine entsprechende Theorie, wie sie weiterhin auf der postmarxistischen Auseinandersetzung mit rhetorischen Mitteln aufbauen könnte, verlangt nach einer anderen Textform, als sie dieser Essay bietet; in diesem Sinne möchte ich hier vielmehr ein Beispiel anschließen, dass eine Verschiebung innerhalb der Parameter der Appropriation Art von einer distanzierten Kritik hin zu einem kritischen Einbezug zeigt, und von einer Aneignung der Repräsentationen hin zu einer Aneignung der Produktionsbedingungen.
Im Jahr 2010 erscheint in Ghana unter dem Titel Elmina ein Film der Brüder John Apea und Emmanuel Apea Jr., die im englischsprachigen Westafrika bereits mit dem Spielfilm Run Baby Run und einer satirischen, politischen Sitcom bekannt geworden waren. Elmina ist Spektakelkino, das Ausbeutung und Korruption im zeitge-nössischen Afrika anprangert und in einem krassen Genre-Mix mit folkloristischen und melodramatischen Motiven verwebt. Die Rollen sind mit populären Schauspielerinnen und Schauspielern aus Ghana und Nigeria besetzt; mit einer Ausnahme – die Hauptrolle des Farmers Ato Blankson, der gegen die korrupten Stadtoberen aufbegehrt, spielt der in der Region bislang unbekannte Doug Fishbone. Fishbone ist weiß – ein möglicherweise irritierender Moment, der im Filmplot allerdings an keiner Stelle thematisiert wird. Seit 2011 ist Elmina international auf Festivals zu ‚afrikanischem Film‘ – AfryKamera in Pozna´n, dem Silicon Valley African Film Festival oder dem Toronto African Film and Music Festival – zu sehen, und soll günstig auf dem in Ghana üblichen Vertriebsformat Video-CD erhältlich sein.
2010 erscheint auch Elmina, ein unter anderem in der Tate Britain präsentiertes Projekt des in London lebenden Künstlers Doug Fishbone; es handelt sich hier um einen durch private Sammler und die britische Filmförderung finanzierten Film, den Fishbone in Ghana drehen ließ. Die gesamte Produktion des Films lag dabei in den Händen eines westafrikanischen Teams – Fishbone stellte nur die Bedingung, in der Rolle des Protagonisten besetzt zu werden. Auf DVD ist der Film in Museumsshops erhältlich, und auf Ausstellungen zeitgenössischer Kunst wird Elmina als ein Werk unter der Autorschaft Doug Fishbones gezeigt.
Selbstverständlich handelt es sich hier um denselben Film, der innerhalb mehrerer, bezüglich des Publikums und der Vertriebswege unterschiedlicher Kontexte präsentiert wird. Elmina ist lokales Kino, das mit spezifischen Problemen und einer spezifischen Bildsprache und Narration ein Publikum anspricht, dass sich in seinem Alltag mit ebendiesen Problemen konfrontiert sieht, und ebendiese formalen Kriterien an politisch engagierten Unterhaltungsfilm anlegt. Elmina ist ‚afrikanisches‘ Kino für ein internationales Publikum und für die Diaspora, die mit einer cinephilen oder nostalgischen Erwartungshaltung an den Film herangeht; und schließlich ist Elmina ein Projekt für ein Kunstpublikum, für das der Film als dramatisches Medium selbst hinter das Konzept seiner Produktion zurücktritt. Es ist natürlich die letztere Rolle, in der wir Elmina hier verhandeln wollen; allerdings liegt die Relevanz von Fishbones Projekt gerade darin, dass diese Rolle nicht von den übrigen zu trennen ist. Die Aneignung eines fremden Materials – des ghanaischen Populärfilms – durch den Künstler Fishbone findet hier ohne die ironische oder defätistische Distanzierung statt, wie sie die klassischen Formen der Appropriation Art kennzeichnet; die Machtverhältnisse sind hier letztendlich nicht auflösbar, da ein realer oder symbolischer ‚Profit‘ auf allen Seiten aufgerechnet werden kann: Die Brüder Apea eignen sich das europäische Kunstsystem an, um aus dessen Geldern ihre lokale Produktion zu finanzieren, während Fishbone und die ‚internationale‘ Kunstszene sich die Produktionsmittel der ghanaischen Filmszene aneignen, um spektakuläres und originäres Material für ihr eigenes Publikum zu generieren. Ebenso wie die oszillierende Autorschaft ist diese paradoxe Aneignung möglicherweise die wahrheitsgetreuste Darstellung der Verwicklungen einer globalisierten Gesellschaft. Die Irritation, die Elmina hervorruft, könnte so als die Aussage des künstlerischen Projekts verstanden werden – sie repräsentiert die Unabgeschlossenheit und Unklarheit der Diskurse unserer Zeit, wie sie eben bezüglich der Autorschaft von kollaborativen Werken oder der ökonomischen Abhängigkeiten im internationalen Warenverkehr (und Kulturbetrieb) gilt. Auch die Figur des weißen Ghanaers im Film verweist auf Konflikte, die ansonsten nur mittels hilfloser Polemiken öffentlich gemacht werden. Doug Fishbone als Ato Blankson nimmt hier ein utopisches „color-blind casting“ vorweg, das im breiteren künstlerischen Kontext in Theater oder Oper praktiziert wird, aber die darstellerischen Konventionen des Mainstream-Kinos hintergeht;8 weiterhin kommt eine unausgesprochene ‚Performanz‘ der Hautfarbe zum Tragen, die zudem von den unterschiedlichen Publika mit unterschiedlichen ‚Rollen‘ besetzt werden wird. So polemisierte ein anonymer Kommentator des Blogs der Zeitung The Stranger aus Seattle, in der Elmina kurz angekündigt wurde, „[if] there [is] really such a lack of roles for white American Jewish males in the American film industry that we need to export our actors to other countries to play roles that should be taken by one of their actors“.9 Selbst in seiner Absurdität und der Umkehrung der wirtschaftlichen Verhältnisse – ohne Fishbones Einsatz wäre der Film nicht finanziert worden – bestätigt dieser Vorwurf die Verwicklungen, die durch Elmina vorgestellt werden; Fishbone selbst benötigt den Ghanaischen Film schließlich als Distinktionsmerkmal, dank dessen sein Kunstprojekt innerhalb der Kunstszene als förderwürdig angesehen wird. Eine Auflösung dieser wirtschaftlichen Verflechtungen hin zu einer eindeutigen Schuldzuweisung ist nicht möglich – in diesem Sinne ist Elmina Next Art, da politische und wirtschaftliche Fragestellungen darin nicht als analytisches Ergebnis, sondern als Momente der Verstörung auftreten: Unser Unbehagen daran, diese Momente jetzt – now – nicht auf konkrete Sachverhalte zurückbeziehen zu können, die wiederum Handlungsanweisungen bieten könnten, weist gewissermaßen aus dem heutigen Verblendungszusammenhang hinaus in eine Zukunft, in der eine adäquate Sprache und analytische Mittel zum Umgang mit dem bestehen werden, was uns heute zwischen Globalem und Lokalem unentwirrbar erscheint.
1.) Vgl. Sarah Koenig: „Switcheroo, Act Two. Forgive us our Press Passes“, This American Life, 29. Juni 2012. http://www.thisamericanlife.org/radio-archives/episode/468/transcript [29. 1.2013].
2.) So bezeichnet Journatic-CEO Brian Timpone in einem Schreiben an die Belegschaft die eigene Praxis; nachzulesen unter Anna Tarkov: „Journatic CEO to staff: ‘Bumps are going to be part of the ride‘“, Poynter.org, 5. Juli 2012, http://www.poynter.org/latest-news/mediawire/180047/journatic-ceo-to-staff-bumps-are-going-to-be-part-of-the-ride/ [19. 1.2013].
3.) Vgl. Paul Farhi: „A local TV trend: And now, the identical news“, The Washington Post, 28. November 2012. Der Clip aus Conan ist auf dem offiziellen YouTube-Kanal der Show unter http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dZElSajQdOo [30.1.2012].
4.) Ebd.
5.) Benjamin H. D. Buchloh: „Parody and Appropriation in Francis Picabia, Pop and Sigmar Polke,“ Artforum 20, no. 7 (März 1982), S. 28–35.
6.) Benjamin H. D. Buchloh: „Allegorical Procedures: Appropriation and Montage in Contemporary Art,“ Artforum 21, no. 1 (September 1982), S. 43–56.
7.) Vgl. hierzu nicht nur die erwähnten Texte von Buchloh, sondern ebenso Jeff Wall 1981: „Ein Entwurf zu ‚Dan Grahams Kammerspiel‘“, in: Ders.: Szenarien im Bildraum der Wirklichkeit, Hrsg. Gregor Stemmrich (Dresden, 1997) zum vergleichbaren Scheitern der durch Buchloh propagierten, strengeren konzeptuellen Gegenmodelle zur Pop Art.
8.) Eine vergleichbare Diskussion aus dem gleichen Jahr betrifft die Hollywood-Comicverfilmung „Thor“, in der eine nordische Gottheit mit einem afro-britischen Schauspieler besetzt wurde.
9.) Arrant, 5.3.2012 um 9:26 Uhr, Kommentar zu Charles Mudede, „White American Plays a Black African“, The Stranger, 5.3.2012, http://www.thestranger.com/slog/archives/2012/03/05/white-american-plays-a-black-african&view=comments [5.2.2013].