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Kunst und Bildung
Impulse geben derzeit insbesondere solche Projekte von PerformancemacherInnen und Künstlerkollektiven, die Kindern, Jugendlichen und jungen Erwachsenen die Möglichkeiten geben, den theatralen Ort als Ort der „Selbstermächtigung“, als Proberaum für die „Übung von abweichendem Verhalten“2 wahrzunehmen. Selbstverständlich ist das nicht, ist doch das Verhältnis von Bildung und Kunst, wie es uns häufig als hierarisch und konflikthaft begegnet, auf einen ästhetisch und kulturtheoretisch engen Kunst- und Bildungsbegriff zurück zu führen.3 Genauer betrachtet kann der vorherrschende Theaterbegriff z. B., der vom Modell eines literarisch dominierten dramatischen Theaters ausgeht, nur für einen begrenzten Ausschnitt von 200 Jahren –europäischer Theaterentwicklung eine Gültigkeit beanspruchen. Vergegenwärtigen wir uns jedoch Theater in seinem ursprünglichen Zusammenhang als Fest, -Gemeinschaft, Spielen aller Art und der umfassenden -Vorstellung von Bildung als eine seit der Antike bestehenden engen Verknüpfung mit künstlerischen Tätigkeiten, relativiert sich das aufgeladene Spannungsverhältnis eines gehobenen Kunsttheaters dramatischer Prägung gegenüber eines unfertigen Spielgeschehens in Bildungszusammenhängen.4 Heute geht es angesichts einer vielfältigen, experimentellen Praxis in den Künsten weniger darum, den Künstler als Vor-Bild für Bildungsprojekte zu sehen. Die Herausforderung stellt sich vielmehr dahingehend, die Konstellation von neuen Ideen sowohl in der Pädagogik als auch in den Künsten mit grundlegenden Erwägungen zur Theorie der ästhetischen Bildung zusammen zu führen. Kunst – wie hier am Beispiel Theater festgemacht – bedeutet dann mit Lehmann auch theoretisch, Theater als offenes und öffnendes Angebot zu beschreiben, in dem die Aufmerksamkeit verstärkt auf die Frage gelenkt wird, wie der Sinn eines Textes hervorgebracht wird, als darauf, ihn als solchen allein zu entschlüsseln.5,6 Diese Sichtweise, wie sie Hans-Thies Lehmann im Zusammenhang des postdramatischen Theaters in einem umfassenden Werk gezeichnet hat, hebt auf die Beschreibung und Analyse von Aufführungspraxen als Situation und Ereignis ab.7 Im Verlaufe des späten 20. Jahrhunderts bis in das zweite Jahrzehnt des 21. Jahrhunderts ist eine Verschiebung der Aufmerksamkeit vom Verhältnis des Schauspielers und dessen Relation zum Zuschauer – ein Erbe des 18. Jahrhunderts der Aufklärung – zunehmend auf die Befragung der Rolle des Rezipienten als Akteur und Patheur8 zu beobachten.9
Kulturelle Bildung als Antwortgeschehen
Der von uns vertretene phänomenologische Zugang ist mit Blick auf neuere Verfahrensweisen in pädagogischen Kontexten von daher eine wichtige metatheore-tische und methodologische Referenz, insofern eine responsive Leiblichkeit, Be- und Entzug, Lebenswelt, Differenz- und Fremderfahrung etc. wichtige Bezugsgrößen für die Beschreibung und Analyse neuerer Verfahrensweisen in den Künsten bedeuten, die von einem offenen, unabschließbaren Kunst- und Bildungsbegriff ausgehen. Er erlaubt einen Anschluss in der Frage, wie Erfahrungen in künstlerischen Ereignissen als Selbst/Bildungsereignisse organisiert und strukturiert sind.10
Unsere Untersuchungen kultureller Praxen innerhalb der pädagogischen Phänomenologie und Anthropologie zeigen, dass kulturelle und im engeren Sinne ästhetische Bildung nicht in erster Linie als eine Aktivität, -sondern auch als ein Widerfahrnis bzw. als ein Antwortgeschehen zu betrachten ist. Die phänomenologische Perspektive, Bildung als responsives Antwortgeschehen vor dem Hintergrund einer leiblichen Verwicklung in Lebenswelten zu begreifen, rüttelt an der Vorstellung eines Bildungsverständnisses, das Bildung als bloßen Aneignungsprozess begreift, der dem Subjekt mehr oder weniger äußerlich, weil rational, bleibt. Das -Subjekt gerät vielmehr in der phänomenologischen -Betrachtungsweise in eine gedoppelte Position: Das -Subjekt ist ein aktives Selbst, sofern es Antworten hervorbringt, indem es sich leiblich-konkret auf das Andere einlässt. Zugleich ist es jedoch auch Teil eines Kontextes, dem es sich erfahrend überlässt und über den es nicht vollständig verfügt und im Unterschied zu tradi–tionellen Bildungstheorien darauf abhebt, dass das -Subjekt gerade nicht auf sich selbst zurückkommt (Entzugsfigur).11 Kein Mensch handelt, denkt oder fühlt allein aus sich selbst heraus. Handlungen, Erfahrungen, Sprache sind im „Zwischenreich der Interaktionen bzw. in den Zwischenwelten der Medien“ angesiedelt. Sinn artikuliert sich als Differenzgeschehen.12 Alterität und Fremdheit als Struktur von Bildung erlaubt es – so Lippitz –, neu und anders über Pädagogik zu denken und den pädagogischen Umgang mit den Heranwachsenden als ein offenes Geschehen zu gestalten und zu erfahren. Dieser Zugang in der Pädagogik korrespondiert mit der Vorstellung eines schöpferischen Tuns in den Künsten und eines Subjektverständnisses, wie wir es derzeit an vielen Performancemodellen mit Kindern beobachten können.13 Hervorzuheben ist außerdem, dass im Laufe des 20. Jahrhunderts die Kindheitsforschung dazu bei-getragen hat, eine andere Perspektive auf Kinder und auf das Generationsverhältnis einzunehmen.14 In den Blick kommt zunehmend das Kind und seine konkreten sprachlichen, sinnlich-leiblichen und symbolischen Ausdrucks- und Artikulationsweisen.15 Spielräume des Erkennens finden im Ausgesetzt-Sein mit den Prozessen der Sozialisation, der Natur und Kultur statt.16 Leitend ist u. a. die Erkenntnis, dass „die Erziehung von Beginn an nur im Horizont eines zukünftigen, unberechen-baren Überschrittenwerdens geschehen kann. Selbst wenn sie auf eine Bildung des Selbst abzielt, die geradezu mit seiner Selbstbildung sollte zusammenfallen können, wird sie niemals an die unbestimmte, nicht vorwegzunehmende und sich schon in ihr vorbereitende Zukunft des Selbst heranreichen […]“17. Diese -Unbestimmbarkeit erlaubt das Generationsverhältnis nur als Möglichkeitsraum zu thematisieren. Für die -Reflexion einer pädagogischen Praxis sind wir Merleau-Ponty zu Folge herausgefordert, das Kind als Anderen von daher zu verstehen, wie man ihm begegnet einerseits und nachzuvollziehen andererseits, wie dem Kind die wahrgenommene Welt begegnet, so wie sie sich ihm darstellt.18
Möglichkeitsräume im Generationsverhältnis in den Künsten
Unsere besondere Aufmerksamkeit ist in den letzten Jahren in inhaltlicher Perspektive insbesondere auf Langzeitprojekte von Performancekollektiven und Künstlern gerichtet, deren Aufführungspraxen Möglichkeitsräume im Generationsverhältnis thematisieren und mit den Mitteln des Theaters und der Performance unter den Aspekten Zeitlichkeit/Räumlichkeit und Leiblichkeit explizit bearbeiten. Sie weichen in mehrfacher Hinsicht von gewohnten Sicht- und Spielweisen ab19: Im Mittelpunkt stehen in diesen Projekten Erkundungen nach den Perspektiven der Kinder auf die Erwachsenenwelt, nach den Unterschieden verschiedener medialer Räume wie den der Medien im Verhältnis zum theatralen Aufführungsraum und zur Erfahrungswirklichkeit der Kinder, und nicht zuletzt nach dem „pädagogischen“ Ansatz, Medien/Theater/Kunst mit Kindern als -Erkenntnisform und nicht nur als Erkenntnisvermittlung zu verstehen. Theaterperformance bedeutet, Theaterspiel mit den Lebenssituationen der Kinder zu verknüpfen und die aus dem Alltag bekannten Medien als Reflexionsmedien für ein Spiel mit sich selbst als Anderer vor Anderen einzusetzen. Das pädagogische Verhältnis gestaltet sich nicht als ein intendiert-didaktisch aufbereitetes Verhältnis, vielmehr bekommt die Performancekunst in der Zuspitzung der Verhältnisse ihre spezifische bildende Bedeutung.20 Die von uns untersuchten Performancemodelle zeichnen sich darin aus, dass sie uns einen Spalt öffnen zwischen der Welt der Kinder und der Welt der Erwachsenen. Indem die Kinder ihre Wahrnehmung von Welt- und Selbstverhältnissen einbringen, die Künstlergruppen die Kinder als Koproduzenten an ihrem „Handwerk“ teilhaben lassen, entsteht weniger ein Spiel, das – wie in vielen Kindertheatern üblich – auf Moral und Vermittlung von bestimmten Bedeutungen abhebt, als vielmehr eines Spiels, das gerade in der Anerkennung der dem Verhältnis Erwachsener und Kind strukturell zu Grunde liegenden Ungleichheit seine Kraft und Brisanz entfaltet. Das Verhältnis zwischen Kind und Erwachsenen wird in seiner Abweichung dabei weder nivelliert noch aufgelöst oder fixiert, sondern wach gehalten. Nicht zuletzt wach gehalten für die Kinder und Jugendlichen selbst auf dem Wege zum Erwachsenwerden, zu einem zukünftigen Selbst also, von dem es weder selbst noch der Erwachsene wissen kann, wie es sich entwickeln wird.
1.) Diese Begriffe werden sehr unterschiedlich gedeutet. Originalität wird z. B. gemeinhin unter Künstlern der Avantgarde verstanden unter dem Aspekt, wie neu und andersartig ein Objekt ist. Walter Benjamin interessiert sich hingegen für die Frage, inwieweit ein Kunstwerk seine „Originalität“ für die Zukunft bewahren könne, also nicht reproduzierbar sei. Eine Kopie ist ortlos, ahistorisch. Sie erscheint von Beginn an als potenzielle Vielheit (vgl. Boris Groys 2009). Ähnlich verhält es sich mit der Verwendung des Begriffs Authenzität, dem i. d. R. eine Natürlichkeit unterstellt wird, die es in Reinform nicht geben kann. Vgl. meine Arbeiten zum Verhältnis von Natürlichkeit und Künstlichkeit am Beispiel Stimme, die der These nachgehen, dass das Künstliche von Anfang an am Werke sei. Kristin Westphal, Wirklichkeiten von Stimmen. Grundlegung einer Theorie der medialen Erfahrung. Frankfurt/M. 2002.
2.) Torsten Michaelsen, LIGNA, „Die Machtfrage stellen: gestisches Radiohören im überwachten Raum“, in: Kristin Westphal, Benjamin Jörissen (Hg.), Vom Straßenkind zum Medienkind. Raum- und Medienforschung im 21. Jahrhundert, Weinheim/Basel 2013; Kristin Westphal, „Theater als Ort der Selbstermächtigung. Am Beispiel Gob Squad: Before your very Eyes“, in: Dies., Wolf-Andreas Liebert (Hg.), Performances der Selbstermächtigung, Oberhausen 2014.
3.) Vgl. Hans-Thies Lehmann, Tragödie und dramatisches Theater. Berlin 2013, S. 9; Johannes Bilstein, Jörg Zirfas, „Bildung und Ästhetik“, in: Jörg Zirfas, Leopold Klepacki, Johannes Bilstein, Eckart Liebau (Hg.), Geschichte der ästhetischen Bildung. Antike und Mittelalter, Paderborn 2009, S. 7–26; Georg Bollenbeck, Bildung und Kultur. Glanz und Elend eines deutschen Deutungsmusters. Frankfurt/M. 1994.
4.) Bilstein/Zirfas 2009.
5.) Hans-Thies Lehmann, „Der rote Faden, Politik, Nichtverstehen. Anmerkungen zur Dramaturgie heute“, in: BVTS (Hg.), Dramaturgie. Theater. Fokus Schultheater 12, Hamburg 2012, S. 8–14, hier S. 9.
6.) Vgl. Kristin Westphal, „…wie wir zu Bildern kommen. Verflechtungen von (Leib)Körper und Sprache im Theater“, in: Eckart Liebau (Hg.), Lebensbilder. Streifzüge in Kunst und Pädagogik, Oberhausen 2009, S. 239–254.
7.) Hans-Thies Lehmann, Das postdramatische Theater. Frankfurt/M. 1999, Hans-Thies Lehmann, „Müllers Gespenster“, Das Politische Schreiben. Berlin 2002, S. 283–300; Hans-Thies Lehmann, Tragödie und Dramatisches Theater. Berlin 2013.
8.) Ein Patheur ist im handlungstheoretischen Sinne nicht aktiv, er verhält sich vielmehr im Sinne von Erwin Straus im Modus der Wahrnehmung. Vgl. Jürgen Hasse, „Raum der Performativität. Augenblicksstätten im Situationsraum des Sozialen“, Geographische Zeitschrift, 98 (2), 2010, S. 49–74.
9.) Vgl. Jan Deck, Angelika Sieburg (Hg.), Paradoxien des Zuschauens. Die Rolle des Publikums im zeitgenössischen Theater. Bielefeld 2008; Jacques Rancière, Der emanzipierte Zuschauer. Wien 2012; Kristin Westphal, „Geschehen lassen. Herausforderungen neuerer Produktions- und Rezeptionsweisen in den performativen Künsten“, in: Almut-Barbara Renger, Christoph Wulf (Hg.), Paragrana. Meditation in Religion, Therapie, Ästhetik, Bildung, Berlin 2013, S. 201–212, hier S. 201f.
10.) Kristin Westphal, „Zur Aktualität der Künste im Morgen. An einem Beispiel von Theater mit Kindern für Erwachsene“, in: Dies., Wolf-Andreas Liebert (Hg.), Gegenwärtigkeit und Fremdheit. Weinheim/München 2009, S. 171–183; Dies., „Fremd im eigenen Körper. Beobachtet an Beispielen aus Performances mit Kindern vor dem Hintergrund anthropologisch-phänomenologischer Diskurse“, in: Johannes Bilstein, Micha Brumlik (Hg.), Die Bildung des Körpers. Weinheim/Basel 2013, S. 140–157.
11.) Vgl. Kristin Westphal, Jörg Zirfas, „Kulturelle Bildung als Antwortgeschehen. Zum Stellenwert der Phänomenologie für die kulturelle und ästhetische Bildung“, in: Eckart Liebau, Benjamin Jörissen (Hg.), Metatheorien und Methodologien kultureller Bildung. 3. Netzwerktagung Forschung Kultureller Bildung, München 2014.
12.) Wilfried Lippitz, „Möglichkeiten der phänomenologischen Perspektive auf das Kind“, in: Imbke Behnken, Zinnecker (Hg.), Kinder. Kindheit. Ein Handbuch. Seelze-Velbert 2001, S. 143–162, hier S. 147.
13.) Johannes Bilstein, Silvia Neysters (Hg.), Kinder entdecken Kunst. Kulturelle Bildung im Elementarbereich. Oberhausen 2013; Kristin Westphal, „Räume der Unterbrechung.“ Theater. Performance. Pädagogik. Oberhausen 2012; Jan Deck, Patrick Primavesi (Hg.), Stop Teaching! Neue Theaterformen mit Kindern und Jugendlichen. Bielefeld 2014.
14.) Martha Muchow, Hans Heinrich Muchow, Der Lebensraum des Großstadtkindes, hg. v. Imbke Behnken und Michael-Sebastian Honig. Weinheim/Basel 2013; Kristin Westphal, Benjamin Jörissen (Hg.), Vom Straßenkind zum Medienkind. Raum- und Medienforschung im 21. Jahrhundert. Weinheim/Basel 2013; Gerold Scholz, Die Konstruktion des Kindes. Opladen 1994.
15.) Wilfried Lippitz, „Aspekte einer phänomenologisch orientierten pädagogisch-anthropologischen Erforschung von Kindern“, Vierteljahreszeitschrift für wissenschaftliche Pädagogik, 2, 1999, S. 239–247; Käte Meyer-Drawe, Bernhard Waldenfels, „Das Kind als Fremder“, Vierteljahreszeitschrift für wissenschaftliche Pädagogik, 64, 1988, S. 271–297; Käte Meyer-Drawe, „Das Kind als Widerstand“, Pädagogische Rundschau, 60, 2006, S. 659–665; Gerd E. Schäfer, „Aus der Perspektive des Kindes? Von der Kindheitsforschung zur ethnographischen Kinderforschung?“, Neue Sammlung, 37 (3), 1997, S. 377–394.
16.) Maurice Merleau-Ponty, Keime der Vernunft. Vorlesungen an der Sorbonne 1949–1952, hg. von Bernhard Waldenfels. München 1994, S. 180; vgl. auch Westphal 2009, a. a. O., S. 175.
17.) Burkhard Liebsch, „Fremdheit und pädagogische Gerechtigkeit – mit Blick auf Goldschmidt, Rousseau und Merleau-Ponty“, in: Alfred Schäfer (Hg.), Kindliche Fremdheit und pädagogische Gerechtigkeit. Paderborn 2007, S. 25–64, hier S. 60f.
18.) Ebd.
19.) Erwähnt seien hier einige Untersuchungen von Langzeitprojekten wie das von Eva Meyer-Keller und Sybille Müller: „Bauen nach Katastrophen“ (2007–2011), die ihre Performance an wechselnden Orten in Parma/Italien, auf den Lofoten/Norwegen, Hamburg, Brüssel oder Berlin etc. mit Kindern vor Ort realisiert haben und die Performance dergestalt jeweils an einem anderen Ort mit anderen Kindern fortgeschrieben haben. In: Kristin Westphal, Wolf-Andreas Liebert (Hg.), Gegenwärtigkeit und Fremdheit. Weinheim 2009, S. 193. Kristin Westphal, „Von der Notwendigkeit, Fremdes zu erfahren. Auf/Brüche von Wissenschaft und Künsten im Dialog über Bildung. Am Beispiel einer Performance mit Kindern“, in: Malte Brinkmann (Hg.), Erziehung – Phänomenologische Perspektiven, Würzburg 2011, S. 203–213. „Fremd im eigenen Körper. Beobachtet an Beispielen aus Theater/Kunst/Medien mit Kindern vor dem Hintergrund anthropologisch-phänomenologischer Diskurse“, in: Johannes Bilstein, Micha Brumlik (Hg.), KörperBildung. Weinheim 2012. „Mediale Erfahrungen. Reflexionen über neuere Räume des Hörens und der Stimme am Beispiel des Radioballetts der Gruppe Ligna“, Körper. Bewegung. Raum. Zeitschrift für Theaterpädagogik. Korrespondenzen 56, 2010, S. 19–24.
20.) Vgl. Westphal 2014, a. a. O.
1.) Reza Negarestani, „The Labor of the Inhuman, Part I: Human“, e-flux Journal 52 (2), 2014, http://worker01.e-flux.com/pdf/article_8978402.pdf [14.02.14]. Negarestani macht – bei gleichzeitiger Betonung der Konstruiertheit und Konstruierbarkeit des Menschlichen – eben diese Fähigkeit zur rationalen, diskursiven Abwägung als humanes Spezifikum aus.
2.) Oxana Timofeeva, „Communism with a Nonhuman Face“, e-flux Journal 48 (10), 2013, http://worker01.e-flux.com/pdf/article_8973365.pdf [18.10.13]. Hierzu auch Oxana Timofeeva, History of Animals. An Essay on Negativity, Immanence and Freedom, Maastricht 2012.
3.) Timofeeva, 2013, a. a. O., S. 3.
4.) Vgl. Giorgio Agamben, Homo sacer. Die souveräne Macht und das nackte Leben. Frankfurt/M. 2011 [EA Turin 1995], sowie ders., „We Refugees“, Symposium 49 (2), 1995, S. 114–119. Der zweite Text nimmt Bezug auf Hannah Arendt, „We Refugees“, Menorah Journal, 31, 1943, S. 69–77; darin bringt Arendt die Figur des (jüdischen) Flüchtlings als Repräsentanten der „Avantgarde“ seines Volkes in Stellung. Siehe hierzu auch das Kapitel „Odradek als politische Kategorie“, in: Slavoj Žižek, Die Politische Supension des Ethischen. Frankfurt/M. 2009, S. 47–62, sowie Bonaventure Ndikung, Regina Römhild, „The Post-Other as Avant-Garde“, in: Maria Hlavajova, Daniel Baker (Hg.), We Roma. A Critical Reader in Contemporary Art, Utrecht/Amsterdam 2013, S. 206–225.
5.) Timofeeva 2013, a. a. O., S. 4.
6.) Vgl. hierzu die Beobachtungen zur Pervertierung des Teilnehmer_innenstatus als „Material für Kunstprojekte“ bei Carmen Mörsch, „Sich selbst widersprechen. Kunstvermittlung als kritische Praxis innerhalb des educational turn in curating“, in: Johannes M. Hedinger, Torsten Meyer (Hg.), What’s Next? Kunst nach der Krise. Berlin 2013, S. 327–333, hier S. 332.
7.) Vinciane Despret, „The Body We Care For. Figures of Anthropo-zoo-genesis“, Body & Society 10 (2–3), 2004, S. 111–134.
8.) Karin Harasser, „Der Hund kann überhaupt nicht sprechen! Das Drama der Autonomie und die Verkettung der Zeichen“, in: Ulrike Bergermann (Hg.), Disability trouble. Ästhetik und Bildpolitik bei Helen Keller, Berlin 2013, S. 116–129.
9.) Ebd., S. 119.
Vom „Migrationshintergrund“ zu sprechen, wird durch eine Definition des Mikrozensus legitimiert, der unter diesem Begriff alle nach 1949 ins Bundesgebiet Eingewanderten, alle hier geborenen Ausländer oder hier geborenen Deutschen mit mindestens einem ausgewanderten oder ausländischen Elternteil gezählt werden.1 Demnach zählt die 23-jährige Deutsche, die in Köln Lehramt studiert, deren nichtdeutsche Eltern ebenfalls in Deutschland als Nachfahren von Migranten geboren sind, als Mensch mit Migrationshintergrund – auch wenn die Erfahrung der Migration bereits ein halbes Jahrhundert und zwei Generationen zurückliegt. Der Migrationshintergrund wird vererbt, und er ist -nationalstaatlich definiert.
Die Klarheit der Definition verschleiert dabei jedoch, dass „Migrationshintergrund“ nicht nur statistische Daten, sondern auch in massiver Weise Wertungen und Voreinstellungen transportiert: Im Sprechen über Menschen mit Migrationshintergrund werden wirkungsvoll Verhältnisse von Ungleichheit reproduziert, im Sinne eines „Dispositivs der Macht“2. Denn das Denken und Sprechen über den Migrationshintergrund kreist dabei um eine zentrale Idee: Es gäbe auf der einen Seite die Menschen ohne Migrationshintergrund und auf der anderen Seite solche mit Migrationshintergrund, was einen lebenspraktischen Unterschied ausmache. Auf der einen Seite stehe, diesem binären Denken nach, die Mehrheit und auf der anderen die Minderheit, die kulturell anders und fremdartiger Herkunft sei, andere Sprachen spräche und abweichende Bilder kenne. Da diese Andersartigkeit als problematisch gilt, müsse sie pädagogisch berücksichtigt werden, zum Beispiel durch Integration der Anderen, durch besondere Förderung oder zumindest durch anerkennende Wertschätzung ihrer kulturellen Besonderheit.3 Der dominante Diskurs über den Migrationshintergrund vertieft oder erzeugt also etwas: die Andersartigkeit der Anderen („Othering“).
Zwar ist nominell längst die Orientierung an der -Unterschiedlichkeit zugunsten der entgegengesetzten Idee der Inklusion aufgegeben (wenn auch eher mit -Aufmerksamkeit für Menschen mit Behinderung und weniger für kulturelle Vielfalt). Dennoch wirken unter dem Schlagwort der Interkultur in weiten Teilen pädagogischer Praxis und pädagogischer Entwürfe immer noch die aus den 1970er- bis 90er-Jahren stammenden Leitideen von migrantischer Fremdheit, kultureller Differenz, Integrationsbedarf und der nötigen Anerkennung fremder Kulturen.4
Migrationshintergrund zu haben, ist für Schüler/in-nen meist eine Bürde, da diese Disposition generalisierend mit sozialen und pädagogischen Problemen gleichgesetzt wird und andere Mechanismen der Ungleichheit, die z. B. politischer oder ökonomischer Natur sind, verschleiert. Da diese Bürde vererbt wird, werden Kinder und Jugendliche mit Migrationshintergrund auf ihre Herkunft festgelegt. Rückwärtsgewandt kann somit ihre fremdländische Abstammung zementiert und ihre kulturelle Gegenwart belastet werden. Ihre Lebenswelt, Bildungschancen und Orientierungen werden somit im Lichte der Familienvergangenheit betrachtet und bewertet. Es ist ein Blick nach hinten, der Schüler/-innen auf die Vergangenheit fixiert – gleichgültig, welche Relevanz diese wirklich in den aktuellen Lebenswelten hat. Die kulturalisierende Fixierung auf die Herkunft lindert auch in gut gemeinten interkulturellen Projekten nicht immer Ungerechtigkeit, sondern vertieft sie ungewollt.
„Postmigrantisch“: What’s Next?
Der Migrationshintergrund ist jedoch längst nichts -Besonderes oder Ungewöhnliches mehr: In den bundesdeutschen Städten machen die Kinder unter sechs Jahren mit Migrationshintergrund die Mehrheit aus. Die wenigsten von ihnen sind selbst eingewandert, sie leben meist in der zweiten oder dritten Migrationsge-neration in Deutschland. Erol Yildiz bezeichnet in -Anlehnung an Şerim Langhoff vom Ballhaus Naunynstraße die Lebenswirklichkeit dieser Kinder und Jugendlichen nach der Migration als „postmigrantisch“.5 Mit dieser alternativen Bezeichnung ist ein Blickwechsel verbunden: weg von der fraglosen Vorannahme, dass Jugendliche mit Migrationshintergrund der Kultur der früheren Herkunftsländer entsprechen, hin zu der Frage, wie die kulturelle Gegenwart von Postmigranten tatsächlich beschaffen ist. Wie also leben Kinder und -Jugendliche nach der Migration, wie verorten sie sich in der Gesellschaft und Kultur und welche Zugehörigkeiten pflegen sie? Das Repertoire an Einflüssen und Horizonten, aus denen heraus sie ihre kulturelle Gegenwart gestalten können, ist oft sehr breit und vielfältig: Meist kennen sie noch die Erzählungen, Bilder, Sprachen und Bräuche aus den Herkunftsregionen und wertschätzen sie als Teil der Familiengeschichte. Simultan dazu sind sie aber Teil der deutschen Bildungsinstitutionen und leben inmitten der längst transkulturellen alltäglichen Normalität mit ihren globalisierten Kaffeehäusern, Bekleidungsläden und ausdifferenzierten Musikrichtungen. Sie sind also in hohem Maße von der allgemeinen kulturellen Umwelt geprägt und in den unspektakulären Alltagswirklichkeiten sozialisiert.
Es gibt verschiedene Formen und Handlungsfreiheiten, wie postmigrantische Kinder und Jugendliche mit der Vielheit der Einflüsse und Kontexte umgehen, wobei das soziale Milieu eine wesentliche Rolle spielt.6 Jedoch nur wenige entsprechen der viel zitierten Metapher, dass sie „zwischen den Stühlen“ sitzen oder zwischen zwei Kulturen zerrieben werden.7 Viele haben längst kreative Lebensentwürfe entwickelt, um aus der Vermischung der kulturellen Einflüsse heraus eine neue, ihre eigene Lebenswelt zu gestalten und sich selbstbestimmt in der gesellschaftlichen und kulturellen Wirklichkeit zu verorten. Es geht dabei nicht darum, sich vor die Wahl stellen zu lassen, sich für die eine kulturelle Identität (alte = Ghettobildung) oder die andere (neue = Assimilation) entscheiden zu müssen. Vielmehr balancieren diese Jugendlichen die verschiedenen Zugehörigkeiten kreativ aus, leben sie simultan und basteln aus den kulturellen Überschneidungen, Grenz- und Zwischenräumen heraus hybride Selbstverständnisse und neue Bilder: ein transkultureller Remix der Bildwelten und -Lebenswelten.8
Postmigrantisch zu sein, bedeutet nicht nur ein rein zeitlich begriffenes Danach. Es bedeutet keinen spurenlosen Bruch zur Migrationsgeschichte oder völligen Paradigmenwechsel. Die Erweiterung Post- bedeutet, dass die Zugehörigkeiten nicht kontinuierlich fortgeführt, sondern neu strukturiert werden. Postmigrantische -Jugendliche setzen sich mit der familiären Herkunft und der Migrationsgeschichte auseinander und denken neu darüber nach, sie mischen die kulturellen Kontexte aus altem und aktuellem Material mit ganz anderen Fundstücken und erfinden neue Identitäten.9 Zugehörigkeiten sind also oft nicht ethnisch vorgeprägt, nationalstaatlich definiert oder werden vererbt, wie der Begriff „Migrationshintergrund“ impliziert. Die Verortungen in der komplexen Gegenwartskultur mit ihren simultanen Zugehörigkeiten sind zu einer Gestaltungsaufgabe geworden, die postmigrantische Jugendliche -facettenreich angehen.
Postmigrantisch zu sein lässt sich jedoch nicht nur auf Menschen mit Migrationshintergrund beziehen, -sondern wirft auch ein neues Licht auf die allgemeine kulturelle Gegenwart: Şermin Langhoff grenzt in einem Interview die allgemeine Alltagskultur klar von einer -Situation ab, „in der zwei oder mehr voneinander völlig getrennte und innerlich homogene ‚Kulturen‘ einander gegenüberstehen – sagen wir eine abendländische und eine orientalische – und mühsam Beziehungen knüpfen. Das hat nichts mit der Realität Europas und der Bundesrepublik im 21. Jahrhundert zu tun. Kein Mensch, den ich kenne, gehört einem einzigen, geschlossenen Kul-turraum an. Unser wirkliches Leben ist schon längst transkulturell und translokal, und zwar jenseits von Herkunft.“10 In der Tat ist unser aller Leben in hohem Maße von Phänomenen der Wanderung und der Entgrenzung geprägt: Nicht nur unsere tatsächliche Mo-bilität in Alltag, Freizeit und Beruf hat erheblich zugenommen. Gerade die Globalisierung von Gütern, Ideen und Verhaltensweisen wirkt als Motor einer zunehmenden Verschleifung kultureller Grenzen. Regulierten sich kulturelle Bildbestände einst durch ihre regional-räumliche Zugänglichkeit und Präsenz, so sind im Zuge der Digitalisierung zunehmend unräumliche, entgrenzte Strukturen von Medien, Szenen, Milieus und Marketing an deren Stelle getreten. Das Leben jedes Einzelnen konstituiert sich durch diese Zusammenhänge ganz anders, als dies noch vor wenigen Jahrzehnten der Fall war.11 Vor dem Hintergrund der globalen Entwicklungen wird deutlich, dass der Lebenswandel und die -relevante Kultur aller Individuen, mit und ohne Migra-tionshintergrund, insgesamt von ganz verschiedenen Phänomenen der Wanderung, der Vermischung und Überlagerung durchwirkt ist, weswegen Paul Mecheril von einer Migrationsgesellschaft spricht.12 Postmigrantisch bezeichnet also einen Zustand aktueller Kultur in der Migrationsgesellschaft. Die Kultur selbst verändert sich also als das gemeinsame Bezugssystem.
Diese postmigrantische Situation bedeutet jedoch keine globalisierte Vereinheitlichung auf den kleinsten gemeinsamen Nenner. Identitätsrelevante Zugehörigkeiten und Grenzen spielen durchaus weiterhin eine Rolle, gerade für Jugendliche. Aber sie sind für viele prinzipiell zwischen Herkunft und Zukunft, zwischen Globalität und Lokalität verhandelbar.13 Sie werden zu einer Gestaltungsaufgabe, die aus dem Baukasten der postmigrantischen Kultur und des globalen Bilderpools schöpft. Eine nächste Kunstpädagogik (besser jedoch -bereits die aktuelle) steht vor der Aufgabe, diese post-migrantische Erzeugung von Kultur wahrzunehmen. Sie muss achtsam werden für die Aushandlungsprozesse, Grenzverschiebungen und Erzeugung neuer Selbst- und Weltbilder im gegenwärtigen Bildhandeln Jugendlicher. Es gilt nun, die lebensweltliche Lust des Bastelns von eigenen Zugehörigkeiten aufzugreifen, Räume dafür zu schaffen und in Bildungsprozessen zu begleiten. Aktuelle Kunstpädagogik, die ihren Kulturbegriff schärft, kann ein hervorragendes Feld der Gestaltung und Reflexion kultureller Gegenwart im Wandel sein.
1.) Statistisches Bundesamt Deutschland, Bevölkerung und Erwerbstätigkeit. Bevölkerung mit Migrationshintergrund – Ergebnisse des Mikrozensus 2005. Fachserie 1, Reihe 2.2. Wiesbaden 2009. www.destatis.de/DE/Publikationen/Thematisch/Bevoelkerung/MigrationIntegration/Migrationshintergrund2010220057004.pdf?__blob=publicationFile [01.07.2014]
2.) Michel Foucault, Dispositive der Macht. Über Sexualität, Wissen und Wahrheit. Berlin 1978.
3.) Paul Mecheril, „Über die Kritik interkultureller Ansätze zu uneindeutigen Zugehörigkeiten – kunstpädagogische Perspektiven“, in: Barbara Lutz-Sterzenbach, Ansgar Schnurr, Ernst Wagner (Hg.), Bildwelten remixed. Transkultur, Globalität, Diversity in kunstpädagogischen Feldern, Bielefeld 2013, S. 27–36, hier S. 30.
4.) Vgl. Arnd-Michael Nohl, Konzepte interkultureller Pädagogik. Eine systematische Einführung. Bad Heilbrunn 2010; Ernst Rebel, „Kontakte und Konflikte. Zur Vorgeschichte der interkulturellen Kunstpädagogik in Deutschland (1900-2000)“, in: Lutz-Sterzenbach et al. 2013, a. a. O., S. 111–129.
5.) Erol Yildiz, „Die Öffnung der Orte zur Welt und postmigrantische Lebensentwürfe“, in: Sozialwissenschaftliche Studiengesellschaft (Hg.), SWS Rundschau 3/2010, Wien, S. 318–339; Erol Yildiz, Die weltoffene Stadt. Wie Migration Globalisierung zum urbanen Alltag macht. Bielefeld 2013.
6.) Ansgar Schnurr, „Soziale Skripte. Milieubedingte Weltsichten in der Kunstpädagogik vermessen“, in: Sidonie Engels, Ansgar Schnurr und Rudolf Preuss, Feldvermessung Kunstdidaktik. Positionsbestimmungen zum Fachverständnis, München 2013, S. 273–288; Mecheril 2013, a. a. O., S. 34.
7.) Yildiz 2010, a. a. O., o. P.
8.) Vgl. Lutz-Sterzenbach et al., a. a. O.; Wolfgang Welsch, „Was ist eigentlich Transkulturalität?“, in: Dorothee Kimmich, Schamma Schahadat (Hg.), Kulturen in Bewegung.
9.) Vgl. Ansgar Schnurr, Fremdheit loswerden – das Fremde wieder erzeugen. Zur Gestaltung von Zugehörigkeiten im Remix jugendlicher Lebenswelten. In: Lutz-Sterzenbach et al. 2013, a. a. O., S. 69–85.
10.) Langhoff, zit. n. Arun Frontino, „Postmigrantische Gesellschaft Behaupten, eine neue Perspektive auf die Szene Europa“, in: Andere Europas, 2012. http://othereuropes.hu-berlin.de/forschung/Postmigrantische%20Gesellschaft%20im%20Ballhaus%20Naunynstrasse [12.02.2014]
11.) Lutz-Sterzenbach et al. 2013, a. a. O., S. 14–15.
12.) Mecheril 2013, a. a. O.
13.) Yildiz 2010, a. a. O., o. P.
Wiederabdruck
Dieser Text ist eine abgeänderte Version von: Markus Miessen, „The Future Academy – An Institution in the Making“, in: Ders., The Nightmare of Participation, Berlin 2010, S. 203–218.
1.) Paul Auster, Hand to Mouth: A Chronicle of Early Failure. New York 1997.
2.) Conference at Tate Modern’s Starr Auditorium, June 2005.
3.) Edward Said, Representations of the Intellectual (The 1993 Reith Lectures). New York 1996, p. xi.
4.) Op. cit., xiii.
5.) Op. cit., xiv.
6.) Op. cit., xviii.
7.) Op. cit., p. 7.
8.) C. Wright Mills, Power, Politics, and People: The Collected Essays of C. Wright Mills, ed. Irving Louis Horowitz. New York 1963, p. 299.
9.) Edward Said, Representations of the Intellectual, op. cit., p. 23.
10.) Op. cit., p. 53.
11.) Op. cit., p. 82.
12.) Ibid.
13.) Op. cit., p. 83.
14.) See also Andrew Saint, The Image of the Architect. New Haven/London 1983.
15.) See also interview with Teddy Cruz by Sevin Yildiz, “With Teddy Cruz on ‘Power’ and ‘Powerlessness,’” on Archinect, http://archinect.com/features/article.php?id=93919_0_23_0_M
16.) See Jorge Dávila, “Foucault’s Interpretive Analytics of Power,” -Systemic Practice and Action Research, 6 (4), 1993.
1.) Die somit einhergehend zunehmenden dispositiven Denk- und Handlungsoptionen entsprechen dabei dem, was in der aktuellen Lernforschung auch als Kompetenzen bezeichnet wird. (Vgl. Franz E. Weinert, „Metakognition und Motivation als Determinanten der Lerneffektivität: Einführung und Überblick“, in: Franz E. Weinert, Rainer H. Kluwe (Hg.), Metakognition, Motivation und Lernen, Stuttgart 1984, S. 9–20.)
2.) Jean Piaget, Theorien und Methoden der modernen Erziehung. Wien/München/Zürich 1972, S. 162.
3.) Ebd., S. 157.
4.) Als Gegenpol zum Interesse (s. u.) mobilisiert der Widerstand schützende Abgrenzung des Ichs von Ideen und Objekten, denen gegenüber ein gegenseitiger Anpassungsprozess seine Struktur überfordert. Dies manifestiert sich in der Aktivität des Aufrechterhaltens von Abwehrmechanismen. Widerstand ist also Teil jedes Lernprozesses, der Umgang mit ihm bleibt entscheidend.
5.) Piaget 1972, S. 162.
6.) Ebd., S. 282.
7.) Michel Foucault, Die Ordnung der Dinge. Frankfurt/M. 1971, S. 15.
8.) Ebd., S. 17.
9.) „Hochschulausbildung soll die Haltung forschenden Lernens einüben und fördern, um die zukünftigen Lehrer zu befähigen, ihr Theoriewissen für die Analyse und Gestaltung des Berufsfeldes nutzbar zu machen und auf diese Weise ihre Lehrtätigkeit nicht wissenschaftsfern, sondern in einer forschenden Grundhaltung auszuüben.“ Wissenschaftsrat, Empfehlungen zur zukünftigen Struktur der Lehrerausbildung. Berlin 2001, S. 41, www.wissenschaftsrat.de/download/archiv/5065-01.pdf [2.10.2014]
10.) Vgl. ebd., S. 22.
11.) Ebd., S. 20.
12.) Mit JULY, IV, MDCCLXXVI. Über die Möglichkeit Kunstpädagogik vom Kind aus zu denken beschreibt Brenner beispielhaft ein gelungenes kunstpädagogisches Experiment, welches verschiedene der hier genannten Zugänge in ihrer Anwendung kohärent verbindet. Vgl. Andreas Brenne, „JULY, IV, MDCCLXXVI. Über die Möglichkeit Kunstpädagogik vom Kind aus zu denken“, in: Andreas Brenne, Andrea Sabisch, Ansgar Schnurr (Hg.), revisit. Kunstpädagogische Handlungsfelder. #teilhaben #kooperieren #transformieren, München 2012.
13.) Jean Piaget, Die Entwicklung der elementar logischen Strukturen. Teil I, hg. v. Werner Loch, Harm Paschen, Gerhard Prisemann, Düsseldorf 1973, S. 25.
14.) Ebd.
1.) Der Titel bezieht sich in abgewandelter Form auf die Aktion „Between the Door and the Street“ von Suzanne Lacy vom 19.10.13 in NYC.
2.) Markus Miessen, Bettina Steinbrügge, „Plädoyer für eine konflikthafte Wirklichkeit“, in: Johannes M. Hedinger, Torsten Meyer (Hg.), What’s Next? Kunst nach der Krise, Berlin 2013, S. 387–392, hier S. 391.
3.) Vgl. Oliver Marchart, „‚There is a crack in everything…‘ Public Art als politische Praxis“, in: Hedinger/Meyer 2013, S. 341–345, hier S. 341.
4.) Marius Babias, „Die Kernfrage lautet, ob ,Kunst‘ tendenziell ein Medium der Kritik ist“, Kunstforum International, 212, 2011, S. 108–113, hier S. 111.
5.) Marchart 2013, a. a. O., S. 342.
6.) Babias 2011, a. a. O., S. 111.
7.) Vgl. Gabriele Klein, „Choreografien des Protestes im urbanen Raum“, Kunstforum International, 224, 2014, S. 146–157.
8.) Vgl. Heinz Schütz, „Urban Performance. Performance in der Stadt/ Stadt als Performance“, Kunstforum International, 223, 2013, S. 36–47, hier S. 34, und Heinz Schütz, „Die Stadt als Aktionsraum. Urban Performances als singulärer Auftritt und kollektives Ereignis“, Kunstforum International, 224, 2014, S. 44–81.
9.) Judith Butler, Athena Athanasiou, Die Macht der Enteigneten. Zürich/Berlin 2014, S. 244.
10.) Butler/Athanasiou 2014, S. 265.
11.) Im Sinne Rancières, der die Gemeinschaft in jene unterteilt, die am Raum der politischen Sichtbarkeit teilhaben, weil sie über den logos verfügen und jene, die unsichtbar sind und nicht daran teilhaben, weil sie nicht über ihn verfügen. Die zeitgenössischen Formen der Proteste machen den geforderten Raum der Teilhabe der bislang Unsichtbaren und Ungehörten ästhetisch sichtbar und sinnlich erfahrbar. Vgl. Jacques Rancière, Die Aufteilung des Sinnlichen. Berlin, 2008.
12.) Nicolas Bourriaud, Relational Aesthetics. Paris 2002.
13.) Vgl. Jacques Rancière, Der emanzipierte Zuschauer. Wien 2010.
The encyclopedic model: outside in
The encyclopedic museum celebrates a grand kaleidoscope of cultures. In the United States the encyclopedic model is traditionally an art museum, and its perspective is usually framed by curators from outside the many cultures included. The net effect of the encyclopedic museum is of a “mosaic” of aesthetic achievements. At its best it is a grand recognition of the world as multicultural and cosmopolitan.
The ethnic or culture-specific model: inside out
Ethnic or culture-specific museums are museums of living communities and are dedicated to the ongoing pre-sentation of the achievements and struggles of a single ethnicity or culture. In the United States they are usually a combination of BOTH art and material culture museums. The perspective of this kind of museum always comes from inside the culture represented. Ethnic and culture-specific museums frame their own narratives, celebrate themselves, and prioritize their own values. Ethnic or culture-specific museums are always educational at their core and all of their professional staff are educators by definition.
History of the old model with respect to multi–culturalism
American encyclopedic museums can be seen as multicultural at first glance. But that is a fashionable word from the last quarter century and is not really what these museums are about.
The most expansive and successful of all of the American encyclopedic museums, the one that sets the standard for all of the others, opened its doors in 1870, and is, of course, the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York City. It has become, over the last almost century and a half one of the great achievements of the East Coast, and indeed, of American cultural life. The Met represents in its extensive galleries civilizations from the most ancient to the most contemporary. Maybe a better word would be “displays” these cultures. It is irrelevant to the Met whether the cultures are extinct, disappearing or on-going. The goal has always been to gather together and to be able to exhibit a “heterochronic” and “heterospatial” mosaic of the world’s arts. This ongoing effort has aimed to be as comprehensive as possible and of the finest artistic quality. Consequently at the Met one can encounter, study and enjoy artistic production at its highest levels from all over the world. Greece and Rome; Ancient Egypt; Babylonia; India; the indigenous and aboriginal arts of New Guinea and Australia; Old Master European painting; pre-Colombian gold; the sculpture of Africa and Asia; one could go on. The museum is dazzling. It is a kind of multicultural paradise – in a horizontal kind of way.
But, these collections were not given by or informed by living communities. With the exception of the globalized contemporary artworks they were given to the museum or purchased by it with the impetus and the money and the choices about what was displayed and collected coming from OUTSIDE the cultures that were represented.
The great collections of what was once called primitive art were gifts from the Rockefellers; the Old Masters were left to the museum by wealthy and generous families such as the Lehmans. The curators who formed its collections emerged out of the wealth and cultivation of the United States or Europe. The Metropolitan, the model for all of our encyclopedic museums, was, on its most idealistic level a way of demonstrating that this new country was made up and energized by peoples coming from all over the world. That legacy mattered to the founders of the Met because it was a demonstration, through the public museum, considered to be a kind of free university for the education of all citizens, that we recognized that fact of America as microcosm. Because people from everywhere came to the United States and settled there it was important that their greatest creative accomplishments could be seen and appreciated in New York. The creation of the Met was, therefore, many things, but above all it was meant to be an EDUCATION in “cosmopolitanism” – a philosophy propounded and defended by Princeton philosopher Anthony Appiah. Appiah’s cosmopolitanism insists that the highest value of civilization(s) is to share its greatest aesthetic accomplishments throughout the world.
But, more than a cosmopolitanism or multiculturalism was at stake. This museum (and museums emulating it all over the United States, in Detroit, in Chicago, in Cleveland, in Minneapolis) was also a display of opulent riches – a trumpeting of the ability of the USA to purchase samplings of the most astonishing artistic -creations from the largest possible pool of artistic production, in effect to capture them. And so, wealthy American tycoons – from the Rockefellers to the Wrightsmans – bought these most elite possible objects of art back to America from the whole world. Even as it showed off the ability of American wealth and power to corner the market, the Met worked to convince the world at large that the United States wasn’t only about selfish and private ostentation. It wanted to prove that there was, indeed, an overriding civic institution that meant to share what it had purchased with everyone who entered the doors of the Metropolitan Museum of Art. Normally, the art was purchased legally and ethically, but sometimes, most notably when it had to do with archeology, objects were brought back by what are now, increasingly, considered dubious means. But, the museum was born in different times. And, those times will not come back again.
Still, the Met was not evenhandedly multicultural. Not by any means. Significantly, and with great impact, the Met, the epitome of the American encyclopedic museum, educated everyone who entered its lobby to its way of thinking by virtue of its display strategy. The Met impressed upon its visitors the hierarchy that was believed to be America’s principal heritage. The Met communicated the pre-eminence of the heritage by which the United States was to be guided in its identity, its laws, its ethics, its philosophy. This impression was made in this museum, not as in school, with words in books, but rather by means of the visual. The display strategy reminded all visitors that Americans descended predominantly from, and were, in the mainstream, the heirs of the Western world. To this day the visitor enters the temple of art and, turning immediately to the left is immersed in Ancient Greece and Rome; to the right in the glory of Egypt. Straight ahead is a Renaissance Spanish courtyard; the hallways are lined with Byzantine treasures; and at the end of the main axis is the European Middle Ages.
Climbing the very grand staircase, we encounter the glories of the European painting tradition. All the rest, off the main axis is fabulous – the New Guinean, the Pre-Colombian, the African, the Asian. But all the rest is, implicitly, commentary. And that was the multiculturalism of the East Coast!
Let’s fly now, over the vast Middle West, extending a respectful bow to Chicago and its fabulous Art Institute, and land on the other coast, the West Coast, where we will stop and visit the Met’s upstart counterpart known as LACMA. The Los Angeles County Museum of Art is Los Angeles’ own ambitious encyclopedic museum. It was launched as an exclusive art museum almost one hundred years after the opening of the Met. A parvenue from the perspective of the East Coast, much collecting has been accomplished in Los Angeles in the relatively short time of about forty years since it broke away from the LA County Museum of Natural History and Art, and dedicated itself to art alone. Here, too, as in the Met there are treasures plucked from the whole world and given or sold to the museum: Iran and Africa; Japan, India and China; the European Masters; Mexico, the ancient and the modern. And, in exactly the same way as happened in New York these works of art were given and purchased, largely with the same goals as at the Metropolitan. The works of art or the means to buy them were afforded the museum by the emerging aristocrats and tycoons of LA with, it should be said (as in New York) significant help from the local government: the founders wanted to show off the city’s wealth; to declare its cultural maturity and respectability; to demonstrate by their purchases and collections as a whole that LA is a microcosm of the world. And by doing so hailing the value of cosmopolitanism while giving a respectful nod to the multiculturalism of the city.
There are plans, it should be said, to alter the display and the emphasis at LACMA to better reflect the distinct origins and different cultural reality of the West Coast. Within a few years, the current director, Michael Govan, assures, when you enter LACMA, you will encounter first Pre-Colombian to the left and Korean to the right. Japanese art already has its own pavilion. The changes are meant to distinguish LACMA from the Met and to reflect that LA is considered to be a significant Latin American city and that it lives on the Pacific Rim. It is also meant to emphasize the notion that we are a city of NOW.
Therefore, a new museum of contemporary art has recently opened within the museum complex and underlines that idea of contemporaneity. So, the idea is, through the museum, to distinguish one encyclopedic museum from another; one city’s potential for wealth and power from another by its principal axis of influence: in the case of New York, Europe; in the case of Los Angeles, the Pacific Rim. And finally, to subliminally always push (whether it is true or not) that LA is the city of the future; New York, the city of the past. In all cases, the money and the power comes from outside of any of the represented cultures.
The ideal, the great museum as multicultural showcase, with collections and exhibitions for all, directed from the outside of the cultures represented served long and well. And, obviously it needs to continue doing what it does. It is, along with the institutions of the library and the university, the best means for preserving the cultural DNA of humanity. But, something happened in the sixties and the seventies to register the need for different kinds of museums in our cultural landscape in the United States. It happened in New York and it happened in Los Angeles and it happened all over the US.
What was it that occurred? What happened was that the people who were displayed in the museums began to rebel. They wanted to decide how they were represented. They wanted to tell the story, collect the art, frame the narrative, determine the nature of their influence from the INSIDE.
So, the Met, responding to a demand that it be more multicultural (this may be when the word multicultural gained currency) and to tell “other” stories, put up a major exhibition of the Harlem Renaissance. They inaugurated this show in the late sixties. Although the subject matter was different than its normal exhibitions, the Met followed all of its old patterns – and had it curated from OUTSIDE the African American community. After the opening, all hell broke loose; the Met’s world turned upside down with the rage that emerged from INSIDE the African-American community. It was in the zeitgeist, it was the full blown sixties.
The rage at the Met more or less coincided with the birth of the Studio Museum of Harlem in 1968. The Studio Museum in Harlem was the first museum in the U.S. devoted to the contemporary art of African-Americans. It was birthed from the inside; that is, it was curated by people from within the culture. The Studio Museum of Harlem was soon followed by the Museo del Barrio wherein the Puerto Rican and Caribbean cultures of New York insisted on telling their own stories THEMSELVES.
A new model was born. That model swept the United States and was replicated, in various forms, in museum after museum. It took special root in Los Angeles in alternative institutions – actually they were more art centers with gallery spaces than actual museums. In LA this came to pass in the early seventies, where culture after culture clamored to tell their own stories and to get out from under the big roof of the Encyclopedic Museum – especially at first, in these alternative spaces, reflecting the Latino/Hispanic/Chicano experiences.
Important to this understanding of why the old idea of the encyclopedic museum is an aging model is the normative reality that most of the things given and or on display in those museums were gifts of the rich and powerful. They were chosen by the establishment; the narratives were structured by them; the values the collections or shows had were determined by them. They were made by outsiders to the communities that the objects represented; and they were put into the storyline the museum needed them help tell. They were never tales told by the insiders themselves. They were never grass roots initiatives. And, it should be noted that, given our tax structure in the US there always came a time in the life of our cities when it behooved the rich and the powerful to donate their own collection to their museums – when they would actually be able to make money off of these donations, or at least better preserve their wealth.
The fact is that, even if it were still the desired model, the old model cannot be repeated today from scratch. The works are too expensive to buy in quantity and, furthermore, are not available; the mores and laws have so changed that most of the works that represent the most cosmopolitan ideal would be impossible to export or to import given new ways of understanding cultural patrimony. Our time of globalization has only increased the awareness of localities that they must preserve their own heritage or lose it in the great maw. The imposing old model, is now set in its character. It is mostly a completed adventure – it will continue, with gaps to be filled in and strengths, and directions to change, but its purpose will be to emphasize and lessons to teach the lessons we have established of the encyclopedic museum.
But, now, the new universe of museums that has been forming is an explosion of examples of the new model – and demands an entirely different set of assumptions. This is the model I would like to discuss today.
Ethnic specific and culture-specific museums
For the last thirty years, the ethnic or culture-specific museums have been multiplying like topsy in America. I want to talk now about the emergence and the strengthening of that new model. The ethnic-specific or the cultural-specific model is, it should be said, based on a completely different notion than the old mosaic or what we call now the multicultural model – where each encyclopedic museum has galleries dedicated to representing the best of the “other” cultures whose stories they tell. Rather than the presentation of the museum as a world in microcosm, made up of a mosaic of cultures, the new model claims that the particular ethnicity or culture is the center of its own universe and it assumes the responsibility for telling you, the visitor, what it will pass on. It emanates from the INSIDE; it is the voice of the people themselves. I would like to discuss only one of the principal types of that model here. There are, it needs to be stressed, many other variations on this museum model, but I will highlight this special one, and that is the Hyphenated American museums.
America is lucky to have its share of what I call Hyphenated-American museums. Hyphenated Americans are Americans who still cling to their original identities even as they embrace America – and as America embraces them. The embrace, though, is only truly tight and reciprocal in this new type of museum when collective America feels that the American side of the equation is at least as equally weighted as the ethnic side. So, Hyphenated Americans have always existed: for example, Greek Americans and Italian Americans. We see the evidence of that in their food: the baklava and pasta that permeated the United States. As I mentioned we saw the evidence of their positive influence every time we entered the Metropolitan museum. Greeks and Italians have, it becomes clear, no need for ethnic-specific museums. They are the ethnicity that powerful mainstream America has long claimed as its foundational culture – along with all of the countries in Europe that greet you with their art at the top of the Met’s grand staircase.
But the museum side of the “other” American experiences began in earnest, as a kind of movement, in New York at the end of the sixties and the early seventies when the whole world seemed to be in revolution. In all cases these museums came out of dynamic living communities; they are not museums of historical relics. They do not represent disappeared cultures.
I will present here, three especially successful such museums in California; a new and daring one in Dearborn Michigan; and finally I will mention an odd situation about museums of the Latino or Hispanic experience in the United States.
Before, I want to point out the characteristics that seem to identify all of the museums that have been extremely successful. They are remarkably consistent in displaying these characteristics … In all cases,
– They identify themselves as American museums.
– They have a unified, coherent and agreed upon clear narrative, framed from the INSIDE to transmit to their audience.
– They have had UNIQUE struggles and challenges in White Anglo Saxon America that they had or are overcoming.
– They are dedicated to spreading greater understanding of themselves to the outside world.
– They want to keep their histories alive for their children who are (they both fear and celebrate) being absorbed into the larger American experience.
– They want also to be known for their achievements.
– They have a strong desire to be both particularistic and universalistic.
– They have significant collections or the potential to get them donated or purchased.
– They are most often combined history museums, art museums and cultural centres. They are always safe gathering places.
– They collaborate with other hyphenated American museums – on their own terms.
– They can call upon political and financial help from the Federal and State governments, and/or from corporations from OUTSIDE their communities.
– They have received significant help (money and contributions of works) from INSIDE their own ethnicity and culture.
– They are ongoing, dynamic and living communities that have re-rooted in the United States.
Four successful models
Let me briefly discuss the four successful museums of this model. Firstly I will talk about the Skirball Cultural Center and Museum of the American Jewish Experience. It fits all of the criteria for the successful ethnic and culture-specific museum. Looking at their self-description, the Skirball Museum insists that it is an American Museum and it does have a coherent and clear story line that it wants to transmit to both their inside audience and to the outside audience as well. In the case of the Skirball the unified story is America as “refuge” – of America as place of aspiration for all who came there – The Skirball’s is an optimistic story. It is inspired by the parallels between Jewish values and American democratic principles.
The Skirball’s programs, exhibitions, and curricula, exist in a communal symbiosis with other cultures. They are inclusive even when they are describing a particularistic history and objects particular to the culture and religion. The Skirball collaborates constantly with other hyphenated American museums.1
In their long history, the point is made throughout the museum, Jews have never existed in a vacuum but in the uniquely hospitable climate of the United States, Jewish life has flourished. The parallel is made to Spain in the era of conviviencia. Above all, the museum is dedicated to spreading understanding and ecumenism among its visitors. It constantly emphasizes that it is a safe place for all peoples to be together.
Notably, although Jews have had special struggles in White Anglo Saxon America, very little space is given to Anti-Semitism or even to the Holocaust. This is a museum about optimism, less about the struggle than about the successes and about the achievements that have been possible for Jews in the US. Such success ranges from Einstein exhibitions to the current exhibition about Bob Dylan.
The Skirball reflects Jewish desire to keep the memory of becoming American alive for their children who are, inevitably, being absorbed into the larger American experience.
It is a collecting institution and frames its story through the objects it collects, displays preserves and interprets.
Thinking about the characteristics of success, The Skirball has developed a significant political voice within the US so as to have received significant support from the government. Federal and State governments. Every one of the successful ethnic specific museums has gotten important grants to help them get started and to continue from the larger world as well as from their own.
A second example I would like to mention is The Japanese American National Museum, known as JANAM. JANAM, is also adamantly an American museum. Like the Skirball, it has a coherent and unified clear story line that it works to transmit to its inside audience and that it wants to transmit to the outside audience as well. Unlike the Skirball, the core story that JANAM wants to communicate is the most painful part of its history in the United States.
In the case of the Japanese American National Museum it is the story of “camp.” This is absolute core – The Japanese American Museum wants to memorialize the concentrations camp period in which, during world War II their property and money was confiscated and they were transported to concentration camps.2
Japanese Americans had special struggles in White Anglo Saxon America. They want that struggle to be known by their own people and the outside world and want to frame the story themselves. They want to foster greater understanding about their humanity and about its violation in their case. They want to use the museum to educate and to herald America’s ethnic diversity so that their difference cannot be used against them and others again. It is a kind of a defense against a repetition of that sordid part of American history.
JANAM wants to keep its people’s histories alive for their children who are, inevitably, being absorbed into the larger American experience. Intermarriage is almost completely taking over the community and they are afraid that, without the museum, they will lose their history.
However, JANAM is not just a “victim” museum. It is a celebration of Japanese American culture and uses the arts, too, as a way to celebrate those achievements. Like the Skirball it is a combination history, material culture and art museum.
JANAM want also to expose its significant achievements and its dynamic life in contemporary America – and a strong new arts initiative has become one of their chief vehicles for getting that message across.
Great artists, most notably Isamu Noguchi, receive beautiful exhibitions at JANAM. So are younger more contemporary artists given a chance to show at the museum.
JANAM has significant collections around which they can tell their story. It collaborates with other Hyphenated American museums, most notably in a program called Finding Family Stories. It is a big cultural center, gathering place, a safe and secure place and for the community.
The political voice of JANAM is important to bring out here, as that voice has helped it raise the money from the government for its museum. Two points: First, after years of lobbying the Japanese community received an apology from the United States. That came with restitution money from the OUTSIDE and was given back to the museum from members of the community for the building of the museum. With other grants from the OUTSIDE, from private non-Japanese Foundations, the museum broadened its activities in the presentation and preservation of Japanese American art. And finally, money has come from INSIDE the community itself, from the Japan Foundation and from many private individuals.
And, just to ward off any idea that these are isolationist museums, JANAM has recently created the National Center for the Preservation of Democracy. This is to use the community’s particular situation to inspire and educate all people to live by democratic principles. JANAM understands itself as one way of improving America, through the prism of a museum, so what happened to them will not happen again to any ethnicity or culture again in the US.
Among these new museums the California African American Museum is one of those that stand out. CAAM began with a coherent, unified and clear story line from the African American Perspective – the core was the history of slavery in the United States and then of the Civil Rights Movement. But, that story line is now growing to include other examples of the larger Black experience: It has evolved to include Africans who have migrated to US recently and do not share the history of slavery or the Civil rights narrative but do share a racial reality and a perspective that is special to the largest possible Black story. One of the big challenges of the African American Museum now is to build a larger racial perspective on Black material and creative life in the world at large.3
AFRO-AM functions in much the same way as the Skirball and JANAM, in its balance of inclusivity and particularity; of presenting struggle and achievement so I will not review the principles that guide these very successful museums.
There is a difference though that is always brought up about other hyphenated American museums and the Afro American. And that is that all the other ethnicities and cultures celebrated in those museums came voluntarily and looking for refuge or opportunity. African Americans did not come willingly. The founding reason for the importance of their culturally specific institutions, and especially of the California African American Museum, was to discover the history of the people who became Black Americans in California. It allowed them, in a way not possible in any other American institution for them to embrace the totality of who they are. To celebrate their own perspective and then to share it and to show that they also share in the ever growing arena of the larger culture in which they are struggling and flourishing.
CAAM has been able to develop a political voice which allowed it to gain financial support from the Federal and State governments. Unlike either the Skirball or JANAM, CAAM is a State museum, supported by State money. Like both of them, it is a collecting institution and collects everything from old kitchen items to high art – according to their own narrative. The staff – indeed all educators at heart – point out all the time that in their culture, art and history are not separate from each other. They are linked. The exhibitions all need to be grounded in their own perspective. And, that perspective is changing, becoming more hybridized, larger and more globalized.
And finally it is essential to refer to The Arab American Museum in Dearborn, Michigan. Differing from the above mentioned museums, this is a museum not in California, but in Michigan that has taken on this challenge, very recently, in an extraordinary way: The Arab American Museum, opened in May, 2005.4
The Arab American Museum has had special struggles in White Anglo Saxon America. Until 9/11, these struggles many have been somewhat ordinary struggles in the United States (remembering that by far most Arabs in US are Christian Arabs) but after September 11 everything changed for them. With the level of hostility and suspicion so high, it was perceived that Arab Americans, like so many immigrant groups before them, might be able to spread understanding and defend their essential and shared humanity through the vehicle of a museum of their own.
As Ambassador Bader Omar Al-Dafa from Qatar said at the inauguration: “After September 11, which was a horrible occasion, the media here played a negative role in portraying Arabs and Muslims and relating them to terrorism. Yes there are some, those who committed this horrible act. But those are few. They do not represent the whole of the Arab and Islamic community all over the world. I think part of the message of this Museum is really to give the American people, especially the younger generation, a different picture about the achievements of Arab Americans – in politics, sports, entertainment, business and art.”
This museum is modeled very closely on the other museums we have already discussed. The permanent exhibition, like the other museums of this type is presented in sections such a as “Coming to America,” “Living in America,” “Making an Impact” – just as they are. The temporary exhibitions celebrate artists and great achievers in the Arab American environment. And, as always, the museum struggles to maintain a healthy balance between victimhood and successes – between a bad past and a good future. Like the others, it is also art centre; cultural centre; gathering place; safe place. As all of the others, this museum is basically a public place created by insiders and made for insiders and outsiders alike to demonstrate the humanity of the Arab American in the light of the shared immigrant experience: As they say in their own mission:
The Museum brings to light the shared experiences of immigrants and ethnic groups, paying tribute to the diversity of our nation. If you plan to retire overseas, you may take advantage of programs like the portugal residency investment while diversifying your investment portfolio.
As the other museums have, the Arab American Museum has been able to develop an economic and a political voice that allowed it to gain economic support from, in this case, major corporations. Being in the state of Michigan it is the auto makers that have given a lot of money to the museum. And, contrary to received opinion the Federal government helps support this museum as it does with all of the others simply by the system of tax relief for those who give to this museum.
And, like the other museums of its type, in order to succeed it also had to receive significant help (money and contributions of works) from their own ethnicity and culture – and, so it has, from local Arab Americans and from the Arab world at large.
In conclusion
Numerous other museum of this type, such as the Chinese American Museum and the Korean American Museum exist in the United States. There is, however, as of this lecture in 2008, no major hyphenated Latino museum featuring artists of Latin American descent living and working in California. (There is a Latin American museum called MOLA but that is different – that is dedicated to art made by artists living in Venezuela and Guatemala and Mexico and throughout Latin America) But, there is no museum of the American experience shared by Mexicans, Guatemalans, El Salvadorans, Colombians, etc. in Los Angeles – itself one of the world’s largest Spanish speaking cities. There are many reasons for this gap, but the most notable is, the lack of a coherent, agreed-upon unified story about that experience of coming to and settling in the United States. All of the other characteristics we have discussed exist in these communities, including the access to money, but without a unified story it just has not yet come into being. So far, the communities of Mexicans, Guatemalans, El Salvadorans have had to content themselves with alternative spaces that grew up in the 1960s – the Plaza de la Raza and Self-Help Graphics (currently defunct) and the many whole and partial projects and promises to build such a museum that have long been in the air and subsequently dissipated.
A final word about an outsider encyclopedic museum that is trying to do an insider show. LACMA just opened a brave new exhibition, within its encyclopedic purview, called Phantom Sightings.
This, the first Chicano exhibition at LACMA in decades, is described by the museum as post-Chicano – representative of a new generation that operates outside of either a social movement, or an identifiable ethnicity or culture. It does so, according to its insider curator, within the intensified white noise of global media and a multifacial, multilinguistic urban street culture. This exhibition may signal, one never knows, the end of the wave of ethnic and culture-specific museums that I have been describing and the beginning of museums and exhibitions that display hybrid ethnicities, hybrid cultures, and the rise of the global nomad whose home is a paradox without borders, “sin fronteras.” These exhibitions will be mostly representative of the moment; the people they represent will be those whose hearts are in a constant state of shattering and recomposition. A new model of a museum within a museum might be in the making again. We’ll wait and see.
Wiederabdruck
Dieser Text erschien zuerst in: Museo Thyssen-Bornemisza (Hg.), Los Museos en la Educación. La formación de los educadores. Madrid 2009, S. 389–399.
1.) Cf. Museo Thyssen-Bornemisza (Ed.), Los Museos en la Educación. La formación de los educadores. Madrid 2009, p. 108, fig. 1.
2.) Op. cit., fig. 2
3.) Op. cit., fig. 3
4.) Op. cit., fig. 4
Why is educational policy change needed?
Policy makers around the world have used the lead-up to the new millennium, with its elevated sense of fear, anxiety and excitement, to create, what Kotter refers to as ‘a sense of urgency’1 to support the need for educational reform. The adoption of a neoliberal agenda by many Western nations, initially, brought with it reform initiatives, based on market-principles, such as decentralization, privatization and standardization.2 In education, policy initiatives were sold based on their potential to address economic issues, prepare students to be competitive in a global work environment, and reduce inequities.3 As educational researchers have discovered, over the past two decades, these reforms are beginning to increase both literacy and numeracy levels in Canada. However, inequities still exist. In fact, many critical researchers would argue that these reforms are actually causing an increase in student disengagement and an increase in the achievement gap between the rich and the poor, particularly with respect to youth who have already been marginalized due to race, class, gender, ethnicity or sexual orientation.4 Additionally, standardization both in curriculum and in assessment has also been linked to increasing student disengagement, both in marginalized youth, as well as in youth who have been identified as ‘gifted’.5 The use of externally imposed standards creates a set of power dynamics in schools and classrooms and reduces opportunities for teachers and students to engage in relevant, meaningful, and critical work that draws from their own lived experiences.6
What is critical democratic pedagogy?
Critical democratic theory sees education or learning as an on-going, two-way, dialectic process that is built around the experiences of the student and allows for critical thinking and action to help students grow. In a truly democratic school, students are given the opportunity to have their voices heard and to build on their previous experiences and interests to plan for their continuing growth.7 Traditional hierarchies must be broken down and teachers must also be learners (particularly learning from their students) and being critically reflective about their practice to bring about conscientization.8 Teachers become facilitators to help students as they: share experiences and learn from each other; undertake critical inquiry and create their own plans of action. The importance of dialogue (between students, teachers, administration, parents and community) must be stressed. Tension between opposing conditions (subject and object, the individual and world, the word and the world) is seen as impetus for growth. As Freire states “the subjectivity and objectivity thus join in a dialectical unity producing knowledge in solidarity with action, and vice versa.”9
Critical pedagogy, as outlined by Freire10 must include critical and creative thinking, not just skills. The critical aspect must examine not only political issues, but also issues of social justice and equity. In a culture of democracy, the dialectic nature of both critique and possibility go hand in hand. Critical democratic pedagogy offers the opportunity for teachers and students to ask the tough questions about their lived experiences and the contradictions that they encounter: why?; for what purpose/goal?; and in whose interest? For the purpose of this paper, I will be using the conception of a developmental and robust democracy, which necessitates a ‘way of life’ and which holds as its non-negotiables the values of openness, respectful dialogue, serious inquiry, reason, equity and comfort with ambiguity. As a way of life, this set ‘framework of principles’11 can serve to guide processes in the classroom, school, community and at the policy table.
The ‘democratic’ aspect pushes the concept of critical democratic pedagogy even further. A democratic process cannot work with an individual doing critical inquiry on their own, even though individual self-reflection is an important part of the process. The democratic process involves bringing multiple voices together, seeing things from multiple perspectives, dialoguing, discussing, debating and working together to form action plans to create a difference. The process is particularly valu-able when contradictions arise. Critical democratic pedagogy welcomes the tension and accepts the possible ambiguity knowing that life is dynamic and constantly changing, and that situations or events can be viewed quite differently in different contexts. In a truly robust democracy, students need to be encouraged, supported and provided with opportunities to express their opinions and challenge policies with which they disagree, based on their lived experiences.12
bell hooks argues that this pedagogy of hope and social justice will help everyone to “decolonize their minds”13, to challenge what they know, why they know it, and what the value of that knowledge is. This in turn can lead to unlearning racism, sexism and any of the ‘other’isms, realizing validation of personal knowledge, and developing tools of inquiry, critical thinking, and self-empowerment. Too often, there is little time or public space – at a school or on a larger scale – to be able to realize meaningful conversations about who has privilege and advantage, what the norms, values, and assumptions are that are embedded in our design and implementation of schooling, and whose knowledge and experience is truly valued.14
Neoliberalism promotes an elitist and reductionist mentality.15 Students who do not fit the mold or who may be disadvantaged (due to physical, intellectual, cultural, socio-economic, or geographic factors) often hit systemic barriers which limit their ability to be successful in training for the work-force, and may be ‘left by the wayside’. Democracy in education counters this by valuing each individual, by providing continual opportunities for critical inquiry, multiple and creative opportunities for student voice, and individual growth opportunities. Critical democratic engagement is realized in the processes and relationships within which learning for democratic reconstruction occurs. Engagement is generated through the interactions of students and teachers, in a shared space, for the purpose of democratic reconstruction, through which personal growth or transformation occurs.16 In contrast to the notion of engagement as something that is either the responsibility of students, or something teachers do to students, bell hooks envisions engagement as a method of empowerment for students and teachers alike.17 This approach to learning supports the empowerment of student voice, and the resulting learning happens on two levels: meaningful student learning, and enhanced understanding by adults about how young people experience schooling and education.18
Why use the arts?
In the early 1970s, the notion of aesthetic education and aesthetic pedagogy began to receive increased attention, primarily due to the work of writers and theorists such as Elliot W. Eisner19 and Harry S. Broudy20. In the early years, both thought that the problems of introducing aesthetic education into the classroom were allegedly solvable through the adequate and appropriate training of school people who are in some way involved. More recently, scholars such as Landon Beyer21 have argued that it will take much more than the pedagogical training of teachers to implement a serious aesthetics program that may serve, in Habermas’s22 terms, an emancipatory function, due to the role schools continue to play in reproducing the social and political order of North American society. He further argues that the reproductive function of the educational system may be legitimated and furthered by some of the very ideas in aesthetic theory that have influenced our notions of aesthetic education. The bridging of this conceptual gap, by specifying the role of aesthetics in aiding the functions that schools serve, is essential to understanding what it is schools do. In the following section, five examples will be given to illustrate the diverse nature and value of the arts and aesthetic education when combined with critical democratic pedagogy.
In discussing the value of works of art, Dewey’s argument that ‘experience is essential to growth’23 is poignant. With respect to the value of works of art, “what is desired is not the object as such but the pleasure or satisfaction of possessing, using, or experiencing it … works of art are instrumental to or a cause of a type of experience which may be called aesthetic enjoyment, satisfaction, pleasure, or some other denotation approximately synonymous”24. I would take the Smiths’ point even further to argue that an aesthetic experience through the arts may also produce feelings of anger, frustration, confusion, empathy and compassion. The arts provide opportunities for youth to inquire, to express, and to challenge dominant discourses or ideologies. Through their performative nature, they provide both youth and those around them the opportunity to see, hear and feel their artwork.25 In order to deepen their learning, I would argue that critical democratic pedagogy during both the developmental and post-performance (or ‘exhibition’) phases would aid self-reflection and promote further action and growth.
Secondly, as Ernest Boyer has argued the current educational system pays little attention to the benefits of visual literacy as an important learning and teaching tool.26 The current conception of literacy, in most schools, has been narrowly defined and focuses primarily on reading and writing, with the majority of teaching and assessment occurring through reading and writing. I would argue that the current conception of literacy promotes a deficit mentality and further marginalizes many youth. It also contributes to the sorting and streaming of individuals, at a very early level, particularly those individuals who are already marginalized due to intellectual, language, ethnicity or cultural issues.27 The inclusion of ‘visual literacy’ broadens the whole area of literacy and offers additional modes of learning and expression. The conception of ‘multiple intelligences’ proposed by Gardner28 initiated the growth in new educational approaches that facilitated the inclusion of students whose talents and capabilities had not been identified through standardized assessments.
Thirdly, arts education can serve as an important tool to help increase cultural awareness. In the Early School Leavers Report29, Bruce Ferguson noted racism and discrimination as one of the risk factors that affect youth. Much prejudice in our society centers on culture. In a multicultural country like Canada, the schools have an important role to play in helping people to understand different cultures and the people from these cultures. Innovative curriculum and programming, using arts as a base, can help to change attitudes and increase -cultural understanding and tolerance. In a study conducted by Carol Butler30, she found that use of a program, which she had created, entitled Cultural Awareness through the Arts, was highly successful in helping students develop positive attitudes toward Native People. The data suggested that the arts were the instrumental factor in making the personal link between the students and the First Nations People. The most important finding was the fact that the classes who demonstrated the most significant change in attitude were those classes that involved not just the viewing of the arts but also doing the arts. This combination of viewing and doing the arts of the First Nations culture was a powerful agent of change.
In addition to increasing cultural tolerance, the arts can provide a medium in which adolescents can ‘share their stories’ and probe diverse societal issues. At the Canadian Education Association’s conference “Getting it Right for Adolescent Learners: Design for Learning” in May, 2007, Kathleen Gould Lundy spoke about her work with elementary and secondary teachers which focuses on helping them understand and advocate for the crucial role that the arts and the imagination play in every student’s education. Lundy describes the powerful teaching tool provided by the dramatic arts, particularly for youth at risk. Not only can drama be used to teach, but it can also be used to warn, lead and heal.31 Lundy spoke of the important voices of youth who joined together to produce a documentary which touched on topics such as homophobia, equity, race and different learning styles. In addition to presenting tough curricular topics to their peers, seeing the passion and hearing the voices of adolescent learners can often teach teachers, parents, and administrators about some of the real life challenges that youth often experience in their lives. In order to deepen the learning resulting from the performativity aspect of the arts, an opportunity for dialogue between the student artists and the audience must be provided, either during an exhibition or following a performance. Kincheloe32 argues that it is these interactions, dialogue and discussions and the subsequent process of self-reflection, particularly when contradictions have arisen, that help to open the spaces in which meaning-making and transformation are possible.
Finally, given the power and impact that music has in the lives of adolescents, critical democratic pedagogy can be used to challenge students to intellectually engage with the world so that they become less dependent on external authorities and others who might not always have their or society’s best interests at heart. Many adolescents may not be aware that music is the propaganda tool of choice of politicians, corporate executives and others who would subvert democratic ideals while rendering us passive citizens and consumers. Numerous examples can be found to illustrate the way in which politicians, military personnel, and corporate executives use music and the arts to dress up and sometimes disguise their messages, such as the Right Wing Australian government recently did when it co-opted rock musician and social activist Joe Cocker’s music to help sell increased tax cuts that would be detrimental to social programs.33 Critical democratic pedagogy can be used to help youth explore and inquire about relevant social, cultural, historical, political, and ethical factors involved in music’s composition, performance, and reception.
As a preeminent philosopher and advocate for the arts and aesthetics, Maxine Greene’s work has had an enormous impact on generations of teachers, researchers, academics, and school reform activists with her reminders of the reach and power of the imagination.34 Greene35 joins Dewey36, and Freire37 in arguing for the importance of linking individual lived experience to critical analysis, reflection and growth. Critical democratic pedagogies provide a medium which promotes: critical analysis and probing of diverse societal issues (such as respect for differences, equity, social justice). Greene’s work38 on social imagination, the place of activism, the role of the arts and the meaning of freedom in the modern world, particularly social imagination, lays a strong foundation from which to argue the important role that critical democratic pedagogy through the arts can play.
Support and challenges at the local, provincial, -national and international levels
Despite limitations and barriers imposed by a neoliberal educational agenda, policy approaches and initiatives are beginning to appear locally, nationally and internationally which support and encourage critical democratic pedagogy through the arts. In 2006, UNESCO organized the First World Conference on Arts Education in Lisbon and is planning to host another in 2010. One of the significant impacts of this conference was the impetus for the creation of the World Alliance for Arts Education. Through this Alliance, the International Drama/Theatre and Education Association (IDEA), International Society for Education through Art (INSEA), and International Society for Music Education (ISME) united to define an integrated strategy that responds to what they saw as “a critical moment in human history: social fragmentation, a dominant global culture of competition, endemic urban and ecological violence, and the marginalization of key educational and cultural languages of transformation”39. The WAAE hope to collaborate with governments, networks, educational institutions, communities and individuals who share their vision to accelerate the implementation of arts education policies internationally. This international leadership, particularly in its challenge to UNESCO to join with them to make arts education central to a world agenda for sustainable human development and social transformation, is a significant positive step forward.
At the national level, the impetus for the development of a set of Policy Guidelines for Arts Education in Canadian Schools began in 1997 at the First National Symposium for Arts Education in Cape Breton. Over the next seven years, through a combination of annual symposia and the work of teachers, educational administrators, artists and arts organizations from across Canada, the final Guidelines were developed and presented to the Canadian Conference for the Arts in 2003. Although little work has been done in terms of moving these guidelines forward since 2003, there appears to have been a resurgence in both interest and organization in Canada since 2006, with the revival of national Arts and Learning Symposia and the creation of the Canadian Network for Arts and Learning (CNAL). Additionally, the CNAL has been working together with the Canadian Commission for UNESCO, Canada Council and the Canadian Conference for the Arts to bring together a wide range of stakeholders in a collaboration aimed at “raising awareness of the advantages of arts and learning, informing cultural and educational policy, improving the quality of arts education programs and fostering research and exemplary practices”40.
What hurdles/challenges lie in the way?
The work at the national and international level towards recognizing and valuing the important contributions that the arts can have to a world agenda for sustainable human development and social transformation is encouraging. However, in most secondary schools across Canada, the arts still exist as ‘stand-alone courses’ with limited perceived importance to secondary school graduates. I argue that a paradigm shift is necessary which sees the arts integrated across the curriculum, valued for their ability to increase opportunities for creativity, innovation and visual literacy, and important as an avenue through which critical democratic pedagogy can create aesthetic experiences to connect the heads, hearts and hands of communities of people at all levels from classrooms to schools to communities to nations and globally. Additionally, issues -related to: availability and access; funding issues and Ministry priorities; partnerships; accountability; standardization; and leadership all continue to have an impact on the achievement of this paradigmatic shift.
Public education should continually strive for equity in provision and access to all of its programs. In reality, -equity in both provision and access are frequently tied to funding issues. For schools in low socio-economic areas, school budgets are often stretched in order to provide the ‘basic supplies’ and arts supplies are often seen as a ‘frill’. The focus on reading and writing for both expression and assessment limits the potential for creativity and innovation for all students, and particularly for students who are gifted in the arts. At the secondary school level, it is unfortunate that many of these gifted and talented youth must leave their home schools, if they wish to attend ‘focus programs’ in the arts, and thus lose the ability and opportunity to share their gifts with their own community.
In addition to equity issues, funding cuts are creating challenges for the implementation of many policy guidelines at the provincial, district and school levels. The combination of the pressure to increase programming to meet individual needs, with recent funding cuts at the Board and school level, necessitates a re-examination of priorities, as budget deliberations occur. As in most public sector organizations, the priorities are generally associated with what is being assessed or evaluated. With the current focus on EQAO testing in literacy and numeracy, and limited attention on the arts at the provincial level, programs and program initiatives in literacy and numeracy are receiving funding while many school districts and schools are cutting arts funding.41 In addition to funding issues, there are a number of other factors which have arisen related to: downsizing in administration with resulting cuts to positions of arts consultants and specialist arts teachers in schools.42
In order to support arts programming both for funding issues and for discipline expertise, a number of schools have created partnerships with organizations in their community and with artists in the community. There are a couple of cautions to be noted from a critical pedagogy perspective including the concern that most community artists have little training in pedagogy, and significantly less in critical pedagogy. Critical democratic pedagogy is based on a framework of principles through which possible actions can be discussed and analyzed.43 ‘Artists in the community’ can contribute in valuable ways by sharing their passion, knowledge and skills with the students, however, due to the nature of critical democratic pedagogy, it is the teacher in the classroom who must be responsible for ensuring that any ‘partnerships’ and programming remain grounded in concerns for community building and social justice.44
School boards and schools need to be accountable to the community for providing quality education to all students. Based on critical democratic theory, a number of questions arise: If they are accountable to the community, does the community have any voice in critically questioning or challenging the existing curriculum based on issues that they would like to see addressed or specific needs within their community?45 Why are they not accountable to the students themselves? If students are to be engaged in their learning, they should be given voice in the development of courses or curriculum that pertains to issues that they would like to question, critically investigate, and take action on.46
The dangerous combination of accountability combined with efficiency in education has led to the move towards standardization.47 Standardization is antithetical to critical democratic principles as it limits the opportunity for students and teachers to critically and creatively engage in their own learning. Although much of the focus of the impact of standardization has been on the effects on students, it is equally important to examine its effects on teachers, teacher education and professional development. Due to the immense amount of pedagogical and discipline-specific material that must be covered with pre-service teachers, they received limited, if any, grounding in critical democratic pedagogy. For experienced teachers, the efficiency movement has resulted in the creation of ‘mandatory’ standardized professional development which again is antithetical to the principles of a critical democracy.
At the provincial or state level, pressures on governments to be accountable and transparent in their use of public monies has been the impetus for most of the assessment policies developed over the past three decades. Additionally, the human capital and results-based philosophy, combined with the efficiency movement has been behind the arguments for standardized curriculum and assessment based on externally-set criteria.48 In Ontario, schools are focused on provincially-developed and dictated tests in literacy and numeracy. The law requires tests for all students in grades 9–10 in literacy and numeracy, and success in the literacy test is mandatory for graduation from secondary school. In other countries, single large scale assessments are being used to illustrate adequate yearly progress (AYP), the primary measurement under No Child Left Behind. These standardized, off-the-shelf-tests provide very little, if any, information to inform learning and teaching. Due to the standardized format, the timing of the tests, and the distribution of results, they offer little in way of diagnosis but have significant weight in labeling the performance of schools and school districts. No single test can tell all there is to know. As the directors of the National Center for Research on Evaluation, Standards, and Student Testing emphasize, “Multiple measures are needed to address the full depth and breadth of our expectations for student learning”49. It is encouraging to see this shift in mindset about assessment.
An alternative approach, which would support the use of critical democratic pedagogy, and has recently been piloted in a number of school districts and schools in the U.S. uses growth models. These models, which support Dewey’s conception of ‘education as growth’, enable schools to show individual student achievement gains over time as a valid measurement of learning.50 Dewey51 adds his caution though, when defining ‘growth’, or as he would argue ‘growing’, arguing that this development is not only physically, but intellectually and morally.
The final challenge that will be presented in this paper is also one of the greatest. The success of any -reform initiative or social movement is often the result of a number of separate but interrelated movements.52 However, I would further argue that if the goal of this educational reform is a paradigmatic shift which recognizes the importance of critical democratic pedagogy and a new conception of education in and through the arts, then it will require critical democratic leadership. Given the complex governance structure of education in Canada, combined with the diverse and complex web of policy actors who have an interest in or would be affected by this type of educational policy reform, I would argue for the use of a radical policy approach.
What is radical educational policy? Why is this method needed?
Traditional, rational or managerial policy development approaches are generally linear, staged and state controlled or state centered. A radical policy approach, in contrast, recognizes both the complexity and the value of having a broad and diverse group of stakeholders or policy actors acting at many different levels. The use of the metaphor of a policy web53 helps to understand how the policy process is shaped by circulating discourses. Using this metaphor, policy is designed as an ensemble of multiple discourses that interact in a complex web of relationships that enable or constrains social relations. It is a fluid arrangement of discourses existing at a given moment in time, emerging out of the struggle between multiple discourses from multiple voices in a given context. The discourses circulate in different policy actors such as government, education officials, NGOs, CNAL, teachers, artists, parents, students and arts advocates who participate in disseminating and creating discourses. As such, while this definition recognizes the important role of the state, it highlights that the state is not the only player as multiple actors can participate in the policy process.
I would argue that a radical policy approach, which builds on the work done by the NSAE, utilizes critical democratic principles and includes the active participation of a much broader and diverse set of policy actors, has the potential to create an exciting future in educational reform and gives hope for a re-focusing of the goals of education from an economic focus to a focus on democracy and social justice. As Anyon54 and Freire55 have argued, the success of many social reforms in the past have stressed the importance of the involvement from the grass-roots level (community participation). The teachers who will be delivering this curriculum, are incredibly important policy actors, as are the youth their parents and other stakeholders. Their voices need to be heard through the dialogues, debates, policy development process and to continue to ask the critical questions of: Why?; For what purpose/goal?; and In whose interest?56
Summary
Realizing the vision of using critical democratic pedagogy through the arts, across the curriculum in secondary schools in Canada would be no quick and simple feat. It would necessitate a paradigm shift with respect to the role of arts education in secondary schools. However, the greatest challenge lies in the need for a much larger paradigm shift with regards to the role of public education itself, from an economic, market-based model to one of democracy and social justice. I would argue that the ‘sense of urgency’ is being felt, not just in -Canada, but around the world, as growing inequity -resulting from the failures of our current educational systems become increasingly apparent. As many critical theorist have argued, it will take a concerted social movement to create a disruption in the current Western, hegemonic model of education.57 It must be remembered, however, that throughout history, many of these social movements were successful because of community organization and the centrality of youth.58 If democracy is more than rhetoric at the educational policy table, it is time to bring the voices, passion and creativity of our community members and youth to the table. I have argued that the use of a radical policy approach which: understands and utilizes the interrelationships and interdependencies in the policy web; incorporates critical democratic principles; and values and promotes the active involvement of a broad and diverse group of policy actors, can further develop the work that has already been accomplished through the NSAE. However, as I have further developed the argument, the need for a pedagogical shift towards a critical democratic approach, in classrooms and in schools, is essential if we wish to use the arts to pursue democratic goals and education for a democratic society.
Wiederabdruck
Dieser Text erschien zuerst unter: Drinkwater, Mary A. (2009). „Radical Educational Policy: Critical democratic pedagogy and the reinfusion of the arts in secondary schools“, Art and Education, 7.10.2009, http://artandeducation.net/papers/view/16. [10/14/2014]
1.) John P. Kotter, Leading Change. Boston 1996.
2.) Dave Hill, Ravi Kumar (Eds.), Global neoliberalism and education and its consequences. New York 2009.
3.) Ibid.
4.) George J. Sefa Dei et al., Reconstructing ‘Drop-Out’: A Critical Ethnography of the Dynamics of Black Students’ Disengagement from School. Toronto, 1997; Henry A. Giroux, “The War on the Young: Corporate Culture, Schooling, and the Politics of ‘Zero Tolerance’”, in: Ronald Strickland (Ed.), Growing up postmodern: Neoliberalism and the war on the young, Lanham 2002 pp. 35–46; Dave Hill, Equality in the Primary School: Promoting Good Practice Across the Curriculum. London 2009.
5.) Dei 1997; George J. Sefa Dei, Drop out or push out?: the dynamics of black students’ disengagement from school: a report. Toronto 1995; Bruce Ferguson et al., “Early School Leavers: Understanding the Lived Reality of Student Disengagement from Secondary School”, Final Report submitted to the Ontario Ministry of Education and Training, Toronto 2005.
6.) Michael W. Apple, “Freire, Neoliberalism and Education”, Discourse: studies in the cultural politics of education, 20 (1), 1999, pp. 5–20; Michelle Fine, Lois Weis, Silenced voices and extraordinary conversations: Re-imagining schools. New York 2003; Paulo Freire, Pedagogy of Freedom: Ethics, Democracy and Civic Courage. Lanham 1998.
7.) John Dewey, Experience & Education. New York 1938.
8.) Freire 1998, p. 55.
9.) Paulo Freire, Pedagogy of the oppressed, Paz e Terra, Rio de Janeiro 1975, p. 22.
10.) Freire 1998.
11.) John Kincheloe, “Critical Democracy for Education”, in: James G. Henderson, Kathleen R. Kesson (Eds.), Understanding Democratic Curriculum Leadership, New York 1999, pp. 70–84.
12.) Carole Hahn, “Democratic inquiry and discourse: classroom climates in cross-national perspective”, in: Carole Hahn, Becoming Political: Comparative Perspectives on Citizenship Education (Chapter 6), Albany 1998; bell hooks, Teaching Community: A Pedagogy of Hope. New York 2003.
13.) hooks, op cit.
14.) hooks, op cit.
15.) Apple 1999; Luis Armando Gandin, “The Construction of the Citizen School Project as an Alternative to Neoliberal Educational Policies”, Policy Futures for Education, 5 (2), 2007, pp. 179–193.
16.) John P. Portelli, Brenda McMahon, “Engagement for What? Beyond Popular Discourses of Student Engagement”, Leadership and Policy in Schools (3) 1, 2004, pp. 59–76.
17.) hooks 2003.
18.) Fine/Weis 2003; Kathleen Gallagher, The Theatre of Urban: Youth and Schooling in Dangerous Times. Toronto 2007.
19.) Elliot W. Eisner, The Arts and the Creation of Mind. New Haven, 2002.
20.) Harry S. Broudy, Enlightened Cherishing: An Essay on Aesthetic Education. Urbana 1972.
21.) Landon Beyer, “Aesthetic Theory and the Ideology of Educational Institutions”, Curriculum Inquiry (9) 1, 1979, pp. 13–26; Landon Beyer, The Arts, Popular Culture, and Social Change. New York 2000.
22.) Jürgen Habermas, Knowledge and Human Interests. Boston 1971.
23.) Dewey 1938.
24.) C. Smith, R. Smith, “Justifying Aesthetic Education”, in: Ralph Smith (Ed.), Aesthetics and Problems of Education, Urbana 1971, p. 127.
25.) Norman Denzin, “The Politics and Ethic of Performance Pedagogy: Toward a Pedagogy of Hope”, in: Peter McLaren, John Kincheloe et al. (Eds.), Critical Pedagogy: Where are we now?, New York 2007, pp. 127–142.
26.) Ernest Boyer, High school. New York 1983.
27.) Dei et al., 1997.
28.) Howard Gardner, Frames of mind: The theory of multiple intelligences. New York 1983.
29.) Ferguson et al. 2005.
30.) Carol Butler, Cultural awareness through the arts: The success of an ab-original anti-bias program for intermediate students (M. Ed. Diss.). Kingston 2000.
31.) Kathleen Lundy, Imagine a school….what young people want: Using their stories. Presentation at Canadian Education Association conference “Getting it Right for Adolescent Learners: Design for Learning”, Montreal. May 14–16, 2007. www.cea-ace.ca/dia.cfm?subsection=the&page=del&subpage=lundy [4/2/2009]
32.) Kincheloe 1999.
33.) Paul Woodford, Democracy and music education: Liberalism, ethics, and the politics of practice. Bloomington 2005, p. 27.
34.) William Ayers, Janet Miller (Eds.), A Light in Dark Times: Maxine Greene and the Unfinished Conversation. New York 1998.
35.) Maxine Greene, Releasing the imagination: Essays on education, the arts, and social change. San Francisco 1995.
36.) Dewey 1938.
37.) Freire 1998.
38.) Greene 1995.
39.) World Alliance for Arts Education (WAAE), World Alliance of IDEA ISME and InSEA: Joint Declaration, 2006. www.idea-org.net/en/articles/World_Alliance_of_IDEA_ISME_and_InSEA/ [4/8/2009].
40.) Canadian Network for Arts and Learning (CNAL), Framework for Action, 2009. http://de.slideshare.net/WAAE/larry-of-cnal-framework-e-feb09-low-res1 [4/10/2009]
41.) People for Education, The Arts in Ontario’s Public Schools. Toronto: People for Education, 2004, www.peopleforeducation.ca/wp-content/uploads/2011/07/Annual-Report-on-Ontario-Schools-2007.pdf [4/20/2009]
42.) People for Education 2004.
43.) Kincheloe 1999.
44.) Stanley Aronowitz, Henry A. Giroux, Education Still Under Siege. Toronto 1993; Jean Anyon, Radical Possibilities: Public Policy, Urban Education, and a New Social Movement. New York 2005; Kincheloe 1999.
45.) Ann Vibert et al., “Critical Practice in Elementary Schools: Voice, Community and a Curriculum of Life”, Journal of Educational Change, 3, 2002, pp. 93–116.
46.) Dewey 1938; Freire 1998; Karina Otoya-Knapp, “When Central City High School students speak: Doing critical inquiry for democracy”, Urban Education, 39 (2), 2004, pp. 149–171.
47.) Apple 1999; Menashy, “The end of efficiency: The implication for democratic education”, Journal of educational thought, 41 (2), 2007, pp. 165–177.
48.) Henry Giroux, Schooling for Democracy: Critical Pedagogy in the Modern Age. London 1989; Menashy 2007.
49.) Joan Herman, Eva Baker, Robert Linn, “Accountability systems in support of student learning: Moving to the next generation”, Cresst Line, 2004, p. 2.
50.) Dan Fuller, Kevin Fitzgerald, Ji Sun Lee, “The Case for Multiple Measures”, Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, 52, 2008. www.ascd.org/publications/newsletters/policy-priorities/winter08/num52/full/The-Case-for-Multiple-Measures.aspx [10/3/2014]
51.) Dewey 1938.
52.) Anyon 2005.
53.) Michelle Goldberg, “Discoursive policy webs in a globalization era: as discussion of access to professions and trades for immigrant professionals in Ontario, Canada”, Globalisation, Societies and Education, 4 (1), 2006, pp. 77–102; Reva Joshee, “Neoliberalism versus social justice: A view from Canada”, Advances in Education in Diverse Communities: Research, Policy and Praxis, 6, 2008, pp. 31–53.
54.) Anyon 2005.
55.) Freire 1998.
56.) Anyon 2005; Apple 1999; Fine/Weis 2003.
57.) Anyon 2005; Apple 1999; Giroux 2002; Greene 1995; hooks 2003; Kincheloe 1999.
58.) Anyon 2005.