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‘Research’ is a buzz-word on the international art scene. People everywhere are talking about ‘the artist as researcher’ and debating how research in art relates to academic research. These discussions often revolve around the legitimisation of research in art within an academic framework and it is primarily theoreticians, not the artists, who are driving them. This book is an attempt to change this. It approaches the phenomenon of ‘research in and through art’ (to use the most correct and complete term) from the perspective of the visual artist and through the prism of artistic practice. Most of the authors are visual artists themselves and the contributions by theorists also focus on the practice of the artist as researcher.
The exceptional thing about research inand through art is that practical action (the making) and theoretical reflection (the thinking) go hand in hand. The one cannot exist without the other, in the same way action and thought are inextricably linked in artistic practice. This stands in contradistinction to ‘research into art’, such as art history and cultural studies.
Master’s courses in the field of research in art are now on offer in various European cities and artists can gain a doctorate at a growing number of universities. This has long been the case in the United Kingdom, but for most European countries it is new. We can justifiably speak of an ‘educational turn in art’ and an ‘artistic turn in academic education’.1
Political decision-making has thereby given concrete impulses to the institutionalisation of research in art. However, the phenomenon of research in art is nothing new. The idea of art-as-research flows from art itself, in particular from the conceptual art of the 1960s onwards. Conceptual artists oppose the view that art can be viewed in isolation from history and politics, and they assert that art is necessarily cognitive.
In the post-modern era, reflection and research are closely interwoven with artistic practice. In some cases the research has become the work of art itself; subject matter and medium serving as an instrument in the research or ‘thought process’. Artists are increasingly positioning themselves in the societal and artistic field as researchers.
Research and the public domain
The artist-as-researcher distinguishes himself from other artists by taking it upon himself to make statements about the production and thought processes. The artist-researcher allows others to be participants in this process, enters into a discussion about this and opens himself up to critique. This is by no means self-explanatory; it actually represents a radical shift in the conception of ‘artistry’. After all, the romantic view of the artist as a recluse in a studio from which he or she sends messages out into the world was prevalent until far into the 20th century.
The artist-researcher seeks the discussion in the public domain. ‘For research to be research it has to be debated in the public domain,’ as Sarat Maharaj remarked.2 This might happen at art academies and at certain art institutes, as well as at universities. When the discussion takes place in an academic context, within the framework of research for a PhD, then certain conditions are attached. For example, the research needs to yield fresh insights, not merely into one’s personal work but for art in a broader sense as well. Crucial here is the academic opponent, whose task it is to critically evaluate the new contribution to the artistic domain. If the research fails to produce novel insights, then there is no justification for the research project to lead to an academic dissertation.
There is a wide range of views about the nature of this dissertation as well as a diversity of opinion about the requirements to which it can be subjected, as is also demonstrated by the contributions to this volume. However, almost everyone concurs that language somehow plays an important part in research in art. Without language it is impossible to enter into a discourse, so the invention of a language in which we can communicate with one another about research in art and through which we can evaluate the research is probably more important than devising a viable research methodology.
When asked about their reasons for embarking upon doctoral research, the response of almost all the artist-researchers is that their aim is to be part of a research community where they can share their thoughts with others and receive constructive, substantive criticism about their work. This research community represents a significant expansion of the possibilities for art and its practitioners, as well as a broadening of art discourse.
Art as (self-) critique
The age-old Western paradigm of art as mimesis, that is as imitation of the world, and as an expression of the close unity of the beautiful and true, came to an end around 1800. Friedrich Hegel thought that art had met its apotheosis, by which he of course did not mean that no more art would be produced or that our visual tradition had suddenly come to an end. For Hegel, the end of art meant that art could no longer be seen as the manifestation of truth and that the depiction of the divine, or of the divine in creation, was no longer self-explanatory.
Hegel’s cogitations coincided with the emergence of an historical awareness, which is by definition also a critical awareness. Henceforth it would be evident that, because of the diversification of modern life and the increasing fragmentation of what was once a single, all-encompassing worldview, it was impossible for any work of art to continue being the rendering of a totality. In art, this new critical awareness assumed a clear-cut form from the second half of the 19th century.
Artists emancipated themselves from the classical tradition and positioned themselves as autonomous creators. One of the ways in which they did this was by responding in an overtly discursive manner to works of art by others. There are many well-known examples of this new, critical attitude: Manet and Titian, Cézanne and Rubens, Picasso and Velázquez, and so on. This critical discursivity represents a shift away from the centuries-old tradition of pupils emulating their masters. By degrees attention shifted from the interpretation of the work of art as a reproduction of reality to the interaction, the active dialogue, between the work of art and the social and historical context in which it was created and the work’s beholder. Modern art, which was no longer representational, became self-critical.
In critical terms, modern art took aim at the societal and political fields, and at itself. The artist places every work of art in the context of other works of art, it is positioned vis-à-vis other works of art. This does not imply that those other works of art are literally identifiable in the new work (though that may be the case). Works of art embody a meta-element, a conceptual moment; the work of art is ‘aware’ of itself, of its own position. One might term this the ‘self-awareness’ of works of art, which question and comment on themselves and the art of others.
From the 1960s, critique and self-reflexivity were a deliberate strategy in art – take, for example, conceptual art, Fluxus, appropriation art, institutional critique and so on. Artists claimed a discursive space for themselves. However, almost immediately this discursive space came under huge pressure from market forces and the for-profit mentality. In the USA and the UK this shift came about in the late 1970s with the governments of Reagan and Thatcher, which were the starting shot for the rise of the art market and, in its wake, a resurgence in traditional, figurative painting. ‘Wir wollen Sonne statt Reagan (‘We want sun instead of Reagan’), sang Joseph Beuys.
Since the fall of the Iron Curtain, neo-liberalism has been the prevailing ideology in Western countries and across whole swathes of the non-Western world, and the laws of the market have apparently gained universal currency. Artists are expected to operate as ‘cultural entrepreneurs’ in the market and within a cultural industry that is to large extent fuelled by biennials, large museums and galleries. Even art journals, which previously played a critical role, participate in this.3
So where is there still a place in the art world for art as critical investigation and self-critique? Where can one find a locus, a platform for reflection and dialogue, which is not subject to pressures from the culture industry? Though universities are also being placed under increased pressure by a profit-driven mentality and cost-cutting operations, and though even here there is the looming danger of a cultural industry of ‘knowledge production’, academia nevertheless seems to represent a good candidate for providing the leeway for this.
Art and knowledge
There is no simple answer to the question of whether research in art generates knowledge and the kind of knowledge that this may be. What do artists know?4 They of course know something about images; they know what it is to produce a ‘picture’. Artists have a grasp of phenomena, how things appear to us in a visible guise – about this they know a great deal, but this is too general and therefore too non-committal. The assumption that artists know how things appear to us can only be demonstrated on the basis of specific works of art and this still leaves us with no answer to the broader question of what artists know.
In the context of research in art, perhaps it is better to pose a different question, namely how do artists think? Hannah Arendt’s Thinking, the first volume of The Life of the Mind, might provide a way forward here.5
In Thinking, Arendt elaborates upon the distinction made by Immanuel Kant between two modes of thinking, Vernunft and Verstand. Arendt defines Vernunft as ‘reason’ and Verstand as ‘intellect’.
According to Arendt, the distinction between reason and intellect coincides with the distinction between meaning and knowledge. ‘Reason’ and ‘intellect’ serve different purposes, she writes. The first manner of thinking, reason, serves to ‘quench our thirst for meaning’, while the second, intellect, serves ‘to meet our need for knowledge and cognition’ (the capacity to learn something). For knowledge we apply criteria of certainty and proof, it is the kind of ‘knowing’ that presupposes truth, in the sense of correctness.
‘Reason’ has its origins in our need to ponder questions to which we know there is no answer and for which no verifiable knowledge is possible, such as questions about God, freedom and immortality. Reason therefore transcends the limitations of knowledge, namely the criteria of certainty and proof. ‘The need of reason is not inspired by the quest for truth but by the quest for meaning,’ writes Arendt. ‘And meaning and truth are not the same.’
In the other manner of thinking, cognisance or knowledge, the thinking is a means to an end and that objective is the determination or attainment of truth and scholarly insight. Verstand wants to understand perceptible reality and operates by applying laws and fixed criteria to phenomena as they are perceived by the senses. Verstand is based on common sense, on faith in reality, in the ‘authenticity’ of the world. The scholar approaches the world with the goal of unmasking sensory illusions and correcting errors in scholarly investigation.
Reason, by contrast, has a self-contained objective; it is the pure activity of thinking and the simultaneous awareness of this activity while we are thinking. Reason is therefore not merely reflexive but also self-reflexive. The awareness of the activity of thinking itself creates, according to Arendt, a sensation of vitality, of being alive. Reason is the unceasing quest for meaning, a quest that never ends because of constant doubt, and because such thinking is ultimately founded on doubt it possesses what Arendt calls a ‘self-destructive tendency with regard to its own results’.
In order to experience the thinking ourselves, in order to know the possibilities of one’s own mind, it is necessary for us to withdraw from the ‘real’ world. Sensory experience distracts us when we try to concentrate and think, which is why we say that someone who is thinking concentratedly is ‘absent’. To be able to understand the spectacle of the world from within we must break free from sensory perception and from the flux of daily life.
The scientist can also temporarily withdraw from the world of phenomena, but he does that to solve a problem and with the aim of returning to that world and applying the answer there, to deploy the solution in that sensory domain.
Reason, writes Arendt, is ‘out of order’ with the world. It is a type of thinking that does not chime with the world and that is for two reasons: because of the withdrawal from the world that it requires and because it does not produce any definitive end result, it offers no solutions.
It should be obvious that it is primarily reason, Vernunft, which is the faculty of thinking that is relevant to art. Reason is the kind of thinking that is stored away in the work of art. Arendt therefore calls a work of art a ‘thought-thing’, and states that art ‘quenches our thirst for meaning’. Art provides no solutions and has no objective beyond itself.
But what about the fact that the activity of thinking (of ‘reasoning’) presupposes invisibility, that it withdraws from the sensory world and turns inward to a place the outsider cannot see, while works of art are objects that are in fact real, palpable and visible, objects which are part and parcel of reality?
The work of art’s ‘reality’ is idiosyncratic and diverges from other objects in the world – even in the case of ready-mades or conceptual actions intended to traverse the boundary between art and life. It is the function of works of art to generate meaning or to give direction to the quest for meaning. The work of art is the materialisation of thinking; thinking is rendered visible in the work of art. In the work of art, that which is actually absent (the invisible ‘reason’, reasoning) is made present. Art questions all the certitudes that are accepted as matter-of-course, even those of and about itself.
The work of art is not the end product of the artist’s thinking, or just for a moment at best; it is an intermediate stage, a temporary halting of a never-ending thought process. As soon as the artist has allowed the work as object out into the world, he takes leave of it. His activity with regard to this specific work now belongs to the past, and at this point the beholder, the public, becomes involved in the work. The beholder picks up the train of thought as it is embodied in the work of art.
The verb ‘to know’ implies knowledge, evidence, and is therefore not applicable to art or to what artists do. ‘Knowing’ harks back to concepts and criteria that belong in the world of exact science and with a mode of thinking that, in essence, is alien to art.
I would not want to aver that there is an unbridgeable gap between scientists and artists. Scientists have important intuitive moments, flashes of insight, when suddenly and seemingly out of nowhere the long-sought solution to a problem presents itself. Conversely, artists carry out research and their research is, at least in part, rationalisable and disseminable. However, the orientation of these activities and the way in which the thinking takes shape differs for scientists and artists.
Wiederabdruck
Dieser Text erschien als Einleitung in: Janneke Wesseling (ed.), See it Again, Say it Again: The Artist as Researcher, Amsterdam: Valiz, 2011.
1.)These developments are a direct consequence of the Bologna Agreements and the Europe-wide reorganisation of education, aimed at establishing a comparable BA and MA framework for all European countries.
2.)At a symposium about research in art, held as part of ‘Manifesta 8’ in Murcia, Spain, in 2010.
3.)See Laurens Dhaenens and Hilde Van Gelder in the introduction to Kunstkritiek. Standpunten rond de beeldende kunsten uit België en Nederland in een internationaal perspectief [Art criticism. Viewpoints on the visual arts from Belgium and the Netherlands in an international perspective] (Leuven: LannooCampus, 2010).
4.)The question ‘What do artists know?’ was the theme of a round-table discussion on art and education, organised by James Elkins in 2010.
5.)Hannah Arendt (1978), Life of the Mind, ed. Mary McCarthy, 2 vols., New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich. . Thinking was originally published in 1971.
At some point last year I proposed within my institution, Goldsmiths, University of London, that we develop a free academy adjacent to our institution and call it “Goldsmiths Free.” The reactions to this proposal, when not amused smirks at the apparently adolescent nature of the proposal, were largely either puzzled – “What would we get out of it? Why would we want to do it?” – or horrified – “How would it finance itself?” No one asked what might be taught or discussed within it and how that might differ from the intellectual work that is done within our conventional fee-charging, degree-giving, research-driven institution. And that of course was the point, that it would be different, not just in terms of redefining the point of entry into the structure (free of fees and previous qualifications) or the modus operandi of the work (not degree-based, unexamined, not subject to the state’s mechanisms of monitoring and assessment), but also that the actual knowledge would be differently situated within it. And that is what I want to think about here, about the difference in the knowledge itself, its nature, its status, and its affect.
The kind of knowledge that interested me in this proposal to the university was one that was not framed by disciplinary and thematic orders, a knowledge that would instead be presented in relation to an urgent issue, and not an issue as defined by knowledge conventions, but by the pressures and struggles of contemporaneity. When knowledge is unframed, it is less grounded genealogically and can navigate forwards rather than backwards. This kind of “unframed” knowledge obviously had a great deal to do with what I had acquired during my experiences in the art world, largely a set of permissions with regard to knowledge and a recognition of its performative faculties – that knowledge does rather than is. But the permissions I encountered in the art world came with their own set of limitations, a tendency to reduce the complex operations of speculation to either illustration or to a genre that would visually exemplify “study” or “research.” Could there be, I wondered, another mode in which knowledge might be set free without having to perform such generic mannerisms, without becoming an aesthetic trope in the hands of curators hungry for the latest “turn”?
Heads will surely be shaken! The notion of “free” is currently so degraded in terms of the free market, the dubious proposals of the new “free” economy of the internet, and the historically false promises of individual freedom, that it may be difficult to see what it might have to offer beyond all these hollow slogans. Nevertheless, the possibility of producing some interrogative proximity between “knowledge” and “free” seems both unavoidable and irresistible, particularly in view of the present struggles over the structures of education in Europe.
The actual drive towards knowledge and therefore towards some form of expansion and transformation seems far more important than simply a discussion of the categories it operates within. In order to attempt such a transition I need to think about several relevant questions:
1. First and foremost, what is knowledge when it is “free“?
2. Whether there are sites, such as the spaces of art, in which knowledge might be more “free” than in others?
3. What are the institutional implications of housing knowledge that is “free”?
4. What are the economies of “free” that might prove an alternative to the market- and outcome-based and comparison-driven economies of institutionally structured knowledge at present?
Evidently, en route I need to think about the struggles over education, its alternative sitings, the types of emergent economies that might have some purchase on its rethinking, and, finally, how “education” might be perceived as an alternative organizational mode, not of information, of formal knowledges and their concomitant marketing, but as other forms of coming together not predetermined by outcomes but by directions. Here I have in mind some process of “knowledge singularization,” which I will discuss further below.
Obviously it is not the romance of liberation that I have in mind here in relation to “free.” Knowledge cannot be “liberated,” it is endlessly embedded in long lines of transformations that link in inexplicable ways to produce new conjunctions. Nor do I have in mind the romance of “avant-garde” knowledge, with its oppositional modes of “innovation” as departure and breach. Nor am I particularly interested in what has been termed “interdisciplinarity,” which, with its intimations of movement and “sharing” between disciplines, de facto leaves intact those membranes of division and logics of separation and containment. Nor, finally, and I say this with some qualification, is my main aim here to undo the disciplinary and professional categories that have divided and isolated bodies of knowledge from one another in order to promote a heterogeneous field populated by “bodies” of knowledge akin to the marketing strategies that ensure choice and multiplicity and dignify the practices of epistemological segregation by producing endless new subcategories for inherited bodies of named and contained knowledge.
There is a vexed relation between freedom, individuality, and sovereignty that has a particular relevance for the arena being discussed here, as knowledge and education have a foothold both in processes of individuation and in processes of socialization. Hannah Arendt expressed this succinctly when she warned that
Politically, this identification of freedom with sovereignty is perhaps the most pernicious and dangerous consequence of the philosophical equation of freedom and free will. For it leads either to a denial of human freedom – namely, if it is realized that whatever men may be, they are never sovereign – or to the insight that the freedom of one man, or a group, or a body politic, can only be purchased at the price of the freedom, i. e. the sovereignty, of all others. Within the conceptual framework of traditional philosophy, it is indeed very difficult to understand how freedom and non-sovereignty can exist together or, to put it another way, how freedom could have been given to men under the conditions of non-sovereignty.1
And in the final analysis it is my interest to get around both concepts, freedom and sovereignty, through the operations of “singularization.” Perhaps it is knowledge de-individuated, de-radicalized in the conventional sense of the radical as breach, and yet operating within the circuits of singularity – of “the new relational mode of the subject” – that is preoccupying me in this instance.
And so, the task at hand seems to me to be not one of liberation from confinement, but rather one of undoing the very possibilities of containment.
While an unbounded circulation of capital, goods, information, hegemonic alliances, populist fears, newly globalized uniform standards of excellence, and so forth, are some of the hallmarks of the late neoliberal phase of capitalism, we nevertheless can not simply equate every form of the unbounded and judge them all as equally insidious. “Free“ in relation to knowledge, it seems to me, has its power less in its expansion than in an ultimately centripetal movement, less in a process of penetrating and colonizing everywhere and everything in the relentless mode of capital, than in reaching unexpected entities and then drawing them back, mapping them onto the field of perception.
STRUGGLES
In spring and autumn of 2009 a series of prolonged strikes erupted across Austria and Germany, the two European countries whose indigenous education systems have been hardest hit by the reorganization of the Bologna Accord; smaller strikes also took place in France, Italy, and Belgium.2 At the center of the students’ protests were the massive cuts in education budgets across the board and the revision of state budgets within the current economic climate, which made youth and the working class bear the burden of support for failing financial institutions.
The strikes were unified by common stands on three issues:
1. against fees for higher education
2. against the increasing limitation of access to selection in higher education
3. for re-democratization of the universities and re-inclusion of students in decision-making processes
Not only were these the largest and most organized strikes to have been held by school and university students since the 1980s, but they also included teachers, whose pay had been reduced and whose working hours had been extended, which, after considerable pressure from below, eventually moved the trade unions to take a position.
The concerns here were largely structural and procedural, and considering all that is at stake in these reorganizations of the education system, it is difficult to know what to privilege in our concern: the reformulation of institutions into regimented factories for packaged knowledge that can easily be placed within the marketplace; the processes of knowledge acquisition that are reduced to the management of formulaic outcomes that are comparable across cultures and contexts; “training“ replacing “speculating“; the dictation of such shifts from above and without any substantive consultation or debate. All of these are significant steps away from criticality in spaces of education and towards the goal that all knowledge have immediate, transparent, predictable, and pragmatic application.
The long, substantive lines that connect these struggles to their predecessors over the past forty years or so, and which constitute “education” as both an ongoing political platform and the heart of many radical artistic practices, are extremely well articulated in a conversation between Marion von Osten and Eva Egermann, in which von Osten says of her projects such as “reformpause”:
Firstly, I tried to create a space to pause, to hold on for a moment, to take a breath and to think – to think about what kinds of change might be possible; about how and what we might wish to learn; and why that which we wished to learn might be needed. I guess, in this way, both Manoa Free University and “reformpause” shared similar goals – not simply to critique the ongoing educational reforms and thereby legitimize established structures, but rather to actively engage in thinking about alternate concepts and possible change.
Secondly, there is a long history of student struggles and the question arises as to whether or not these are still relevant today and, if they are, how and why? The recent student struggles did not simply originate with the Bologna Declaration. The genealogy of various school and university protests and struggles over the past forty years demonstrates that we live in an era of educational reforms which, since the 1960s, have led to the construction of a new political subjectivity, the “knowledge worker.” This is not just a phenomenon of the new millennium; furthermore, many artistic practices from the 1960s and 1970s relate to this re-ordering of knowledge within Western societies. This is one of the many reasons why we so readily relate to these practices, as exemplified by conceptualism and the various ways in which conceptual artists engaged with contemporary changes in the concepts of information and communication.3
All of this identifies hugely problematic and very urgent issues, but we cannot lose sight of the status of actual knowledge formations within these. When knowledge is not geared towards “production,” it has the possibility of posing questions that combine the known and the imagined, the analytical and the experiential, and which keep stretching the terrain of knowledge so that it is always just beyond the border of what can be conceptualized.
These are questions in which the conditions of knowledge are always internal to the concepts it is entertaining, not as a context but as a limit to be tested. The entire critical epistemology developed by Foucault and by Derrida rested on questions that always contain a perception of their own impossibility, a consciousness of thinking as a process of unthinking something that is fully aware of its own status. The structural, the techniques, and the apparatuses, could never be separated from the critical interrogation of concepts. As Giorgio Agamben says of Foucault’s concept of the apparatus:
The proximity of this term to the theological dispositio, as well as to Foucault’s apparatuses, is evident. What is common to all these terms is that they refer back to this oikonomia, that is, to a set of practices, bodies of knowledge, measures, and institutions that aim to manage, govern, control, and orient – in a way that purports to be useful – the behaviors, gestures, and thoughts of human beings.4
So the struggle facing education is precisely that of separating thought from its structures, a struggle constantly informed by tensions between thought management and subjectification – the frictions by which we turn ourselves into subjects. As Foucault argued, this is the difference between the production of subjects in “power/knowledge” and those processes of self-formation in which the person is active. It would seem then that the struggle in education arises from tensions between conscious inscription into processes of self-formation and what Foucault, speaking of his concerns with scientific classification, articulated as the subsequent and necessary “insurrection of subjugated knowledges,” in which constant new voices appear claiming themselves not as “identities,” but as events within knowledge.5 The argument that Isabelle Stengers makes about her own political formation has convinced me that this is a productive direction to follow in trying to map out knowledge as struggle:
My own intellectual and political life has been marked by what I learned from the appearance of drugs users’ groups claiming that they were “citizens like everyone else,“ and fighting against laws that were officially meant to “protect“ them. The efficacy of this new collective voice, relegating to the past what had been the authorized, consensual expertise legitimating the “war on drugs,“ convinced me that such events were “political events“ par excellence, producing – as, I discovered afterwards, Dewey had already emphasized – both new political struggle and new important knowledge. I even proposed that what we call democracy could be evaluated by its relation to those disrupting collective productions. A “true“ democracy would demand the acceptance of the ongoing challenge of such disruptions – would not only accept them but also acknowledge those events as something it depended upon.6
Knowledge as disruption, knowledge as counter-subjugation, knowledge as constant exhortation to its own, often uncomfortable implications, are at the heart of “struggle.” The battle over education as we are experiencing it now does not find its origin in the desire to suppress these but rather in efforts to regulate them so that they work in tandem with the economies of cognitive capitalism.
ECONOMIES
The economies of the world of knowledge have shifted quite dramatically over the past ten to fifteen years. What had been a fairly simple subsidy model, with states covering the basic expenses of teaching, subsidizing home schooling on a per capita basis (along with private entities incorporated in “not -for-profit” structures); research councils and foundations covering the support of research in the humanities and pure sciences; and industry supporting applied research, has changed quite dramatically, as have the traditional outlets for such knowledge: scholarly journals and books, exhibitions, science-based industry, the military, and public services such as agriculture and food production. Knowledge, at present, is not only enjoined to be “transferable” (to move easily between paradigms so that its potential impact will be transparent from the outset) and to invent new and ever expanding outlets for itself, it must also contend with the prevalent belief that it should be obliged not only to seek out alternative sources of funding but actually to produce these. By producing the need for a particular type of knowledge one is also setting up the means of its excavation or invention – this is therefore a “need-based” culture of knowledge that produces the support and the market through itself.
So, when I speak of a “free” academy, the question has to be posed: if it is to meet all the above requirements, namely, that it not be fee-charging, not produce applied research, not function within given fields of expertise, and not consider itself in terms of applied “outcomes,” how would it be funded?
In terms of the internet, the economic model of “free“ that has emerged over the past decade initially seemed to be an intensification or a contemporary perpetuation of what had been called by economists, the “cross-subsidy“ model: you’d get one thing free if you bought another, or you’d get a product free only if you paid for a service. This primary model was then expanded by the possibilities of ever increasing access to the internet, married to constantly lowered costs in the realm of digital technologies.
A second trend is simply that anything that touches digital networks quickly feels the effect of falling costs. And so it goes, too, for everything from banking to gambling, check it out! The moment a company’s primary expenses become things based in silicon, free becomes not just an option but also the inevitable destination.7 The cost of actually circulating something within these economies becomes lower and lower, until cost is no longer the primary index of its value.
A third aspect of this emergent economic model is perhaps the one most relevant to this discussion of education. Here the emphasis is on a shift from an exclusive focus on buyers and sellers, producers and consumers, to a tripartite model, in which the third element that enters does so based on its interest in the exchange taking place between the first two elements – an interest to which it contributes financially. In the traditional media model, a publisher provides a product free (or nearly free) to consumers, and advertisers pay to ride along. Radio is “free to air,” and so is much of television. Likewise, newspaper and magazine publishers don’t charge readers anything close to the actual cost of creating, printing, and distributing their products. They’re not selling papers and magazines to readers, they’re selling readers to advertisers. It’s a three-way market.
In a sense, what the Web represents is the extension of the media business model to industries of all sorts. This is not simply the notion that advertising will pay for everything. There are dozens of ways that media companies make money around free content, from selling information about consumers to brand licensing, “value-added“ subscriptions, and direct e-commerce. Now an entire ecosystem of Web companies is growing up around the same set of models.8
The question is whether this model of a “free” economy is relevant to my proposal for a free “academy,” given that in an economic model the actual thing in circulation is not subject to much attention except as it appeals to a large public and their ostensible needs. Does this model have any potential for criticality or for an exchange that goes beyond consumption? Novelist, activist, and technology commentator Cory Doctorow claims that there’s a pretty strong case to be made that “free” has some inherent antipathy to capitalism. That is, information that can be freely reproduced at no marginal cost may not want, need or benefit from markets as a way of organizing them. . . . Indeed, there’s something eerily Marxist in this phenomenon, in that it mirrors Marx’s prediction of capitalism’s ability to create a surplus of capacity that can subsequently be freely shared without market forces’ brutality.9
The appealing part of the economy of “free” for debates about education is its unpredictability in throwing up new spheres of interest and new congregations around them. It has some small potential for shifting the present fixation on the direct relation between fees, training, applied research, organization-as-management, predictable outputs and outcomes, and the immediate consumption of knowledge. This however seems a very narrow notion of criticality as it is limited to the production of a surplus within knowledge and fails to take on the problems of subjectification. And it is the agency of subjectification and its contradictory multiplicity that is at the heart of a preoccupation with knowledge in education, giving it its traction as it were, what Foucault called “the lived multiplicity of positionings.” The internet-based model of “free” does break the direct relation between buyers and sellers, which in the current climate of debates about education, in the context of what Nick Dyer-Witheford has called “Academia Inc.,” is certainly welcome. But it does not expand the trajectory of participation substantively, merely reducing the act of taking part in this economy of use and exchange. The need to think of a “market” for the disruption of paradigms emerges as an exercise in futility and as politically debilitating. To think again with Agamben:
Contemporary societies therefore present themselves as inert bodies going through massive processes of desubjectification without acknowledging any real subjectification. Hence the eclipse of politics, which used to presuppose the existence of subjects and real identities (the workers’ movement, the bourgeoisie, etc.), and the triumph of the oikonomia, that is to say, of a pure activity of government that aims at nothing other than its own replication.10
What then would be the sites of conscious subjectification within this amalgam of education and creative practices?
SITES
Over the past two decades we have seen a proliferation of self-organized structures that take the form, with regard to both their investigations and effects, of sites of learning.11 These have, more than any other initiative, collapsed the divisions between sites of formal academic education and those of creative practice, display, performance, and activism. In these spaces the previously clear boundaries between universities, academies, museums, galleries, performance spaces, NGOs, and political organizations, lost much of their visibility and efficaciousness. Of course, virtually every European city still has at least one if not several vast “entertainment machine” institutions, traditional museums that see their task as one of inviting the populace to partake of “art” in the most conventional sense and perceive “research” to be largely about themselves (to consist, that is, in the seemingly endless conferences that are held each year on “the changing role of the museum”). These institutions however no longer define the parameters of the field and serve more as indices of consumption, market proximities, and scholastic inertia.
What does knowledge do when it circulates in other sites such as the art world?
As Eva Egermann says:
Of course, the art field was seen as a place in which things could happen, a field of potential, a space of exchange between different models and concepts and, in the sense of learning and unlearning, a field of agency and transfer between different social and political fields and between different positions and subjectivities. In a way, the exhibition functioned as a pretext, a defined place for communication and action that would perhaps establish impulses for further transformations. So, the project functioned as an expanded field of practice from which to organize and network between many different groups, but also to question and experiment with methods of representation and distribution for collective artistic research. We wanted to disseminate our research for collective usage through various means, such as the study circle itself, a wiki, publications and readers and through the model of a free university.12
More than any other sphere, the spaces of contemporary art that open themselves to this kind of alternative activity of learning and knowledge production, and see in it not an occasional indulgence but their actual daily business, have become the sites of some of the most important redefinitions of knowledge that circulate today.
As sites, they have marked the shift from “Ivory Towers” of knowledge to spaces of interlocution, with in between a short phase as “laboratories.” As a dialogical practice based on questioning, on agitating the edges of paradigms and on raising external points of view, interlocution takes knowledge back to a Socratic method but invests its operations with acknowledged stakes and interests, rather than being a set of formal proceedings. It gives a performative dimension to the belief argued earlier through the work of Foucault and Derrida, that knowledge always has at its edges the active process of its own limits and its own invalidation.
In setting up knowledge production within the spaces and sites of art, one also takes up a set of permissions that are on offer. Recognizing who is posing questions, where they are speaking from, and from where they know what they know, becomes central rather than, as is typical, marginal qualifications often relegated to footnotes. Permission is equally granted to start in the middle without having to rehearse the telos of an argument; to start from “right here and right now” and embed issues in a variety of contexts, expanding their urgency; to bring to these arguments a host of validations, interventions, asides, and exemplifications that are not recognized as directly related or as sustaining provable knowledge. And, perhaps most importantly, “the curatorial,” not as a profession but as an organizing and assembling impulse, opens up a set of possibilities, mediations perhaps, to formulate subjects that may not be part of an agreed-upon canon of “subjects” worthy of investigation. So knowledge in the art world, through a set of permissions that do not recognize the academic conventions for how one arrives at a subject, can serve both the purposes of reframing and producing subjects in the world.
Finally, I would argue that knowledge in the art world has allowed us to come to terms with partiality – with the fact that our field of knowing is always partially comprehensible, the problems that populate it are partially visible, and our arguments are only partially inhabiting a recognizable logic. Under no illusions as to its comprehensiveness, knowledge as it is built up within the spaces of art makes relatively modest claims for plotting out the entirety of a problematic, accepting instead that it is entering in the middle and illuminating some limited aspects, all the while making clear its drives in doing so.13
And it is here, in these spaces, that one can ground the earlier argument that the task at hand in thinking through “free“ is not one of liberation from confinement, but rather one of undoing the very possibilities of containment. It is necessary to understand that containment is not censure but rather half acknowledges acts of framing and territorializing.
VECTORS
In conjunction with the sites described above it is also direction and circulation that help in opening up “knowledge” to new perceptions of its mobility.
How can we think of “education” as circulations of knowledge and not as the top-down or down-up dynamics in which there is always a given, dominant direction for the movement of knowledge? The direction of the knowledge determines its mode of dissemination: if it is highly elevated and canonized then it is structured in a particular, hierarchical way, involving original texts and commentaries on them; if it is experiential then it takes the form of narrative and description in a more lateral form; and if it is empirical then the production of data categories, vertical and horizontal, would dominate its argument structures even when it is speculating on the very experience of excavating and structuring that knowledge.14
While thinking about this essay I happened to hear a segment of a radio program called The Bottom Line, a weekly BBC program about business entrepreneurs I had never encountered before. In it a businessman was talking about his training; Geoff Quinn the chief executive of clothing manufacturer T. M. Lewin said he had not had much education and went into clothing retailing at the age of sixteen, “but then I discovered the stock room – putting things in boxes, making lists, ordering the totality of the operation.”15 He spoke of the stockroom, with a certain sense of wonder, as the site in which everything came together, where the bits connected and made sense, less a repository than a launch pad for a sartorial world of possibilities. The idea that the “stockroom” could be an epiphany, could be someone’s education, was intriguing and I tried to think it out a bit … part Foucauldian notion of scientific classification and part Simondon’s pragmatic transductive thought about operations rather than meanings – the “stockroom” is clearly a perspective, an early recognition of the systemic and the interconnected, and a place from which to see the “big picture.” While the “stockroom” may be a rich and pleasing metaphor, it is also a vector, along which a huge range of manufacturing technologies, marketing strategies, and advertising campaigns meet up with labor histories and those of raw materials, with print technologies and internet disseminations, with the fantasmatic investments in clothes and their potential to renew us.
Therefore what if “education” – the complex means by which knowledges are disseminated and shared – could be thought of as a vector, as a quantity (force or velocity, for example), made up of both direction and magnitude? A powerful horizontality that looks at the sites of education as convergences of drives to knowledge that are in themselves knowledge? Not in the sense of formally inherited, archived, and transmitted knowledges but in the sense that ambition “knows” and curiosity “knows” and poverty “knows” – they are modes of knowing the world and their inclusion or their recognition as events of knowledge within the sites of education make up not the context of what goes on in the classroom or in the space of cultural gathering, but the content.
Keller Easterling in her exceptionally interesting book Enduring Innocence builds on Arjun Appadurai’s notion of “imagined worlds” as “the multiple worlds that are constituted by the historically situated imaginations of persons and groups spread around the globe … these mixtures create variegated scapes described as “mediascapes and “ethnoscapes.” Which, says Easterling, by “naturalizing the migration and negotiation of traveling cultural forms allows these thinkers [such as Appadurai] to avoid impossible constructs about an authentic locality.”16 From Easterling’s work I have learned to understand such sites as located forms of “intelligence” – both information and stealth formation. To recognize the operations of “the network” in relation to structures of knowledge in which no linearity could exist and the direct relation between who is in the spaces of learning, the places to which they are connected, the technologies that close the gaps in those distances, the unexpected and unpredictable points of entry that they might have, the fantasy projections that might have brought them there – all agglomerate as sites of knowledge.
We might be able to look at these sites and spaces of education as ones in which long lines of mobility, curiosity, epistemic hegemony, colonial heritages, urban fantasies, projections of phantom professionalization, new technologies of both formal access and less formal communication, a mutual sharing of information, and modes of knowledge organization, all come together in a heady mix – that is the field of knowledge and from it we would need to go outwards to combine all of these as actual sites of knowledge and produce a vector.
Having tried to deconstruct as many discursive aspects of what “free” might mean in relation to knowledge, in relation to my hoped-for-academy, I think that what has come about is the understanding of “free” in a non-liberationist vein, away from the binaries of confinement and liberty, rather as the force and velocity by which knowledge and our imbrication in it, move along. That its comings-together are our comings-together and not points in a curriculum, rather along the lines of the operations of “singularity” that enact the relation of “the human to a specifiable horizon” through which meaning is derived, as Jean-Luc Nancy says.17 Singularity provides us with another model of thinking relationality, not as external but as loyal to a logic of its own self-organization. Self-organization links outwardly not as identity, interest, or affiliation, but as a mode of coexistence in space. To think “knowledge” as the working of singularity is actually to decouple it from the operational demands put on it, to open it up to processes of multiplication and of links to alternate and unexpected entities, to animate it through something other than critique or defiance – perhaps as “free.”
Wiederabdruck
Dieser Text erschien zuerst in: e-flux Journal, Education Actualized, #14, 03/2010 unter: http://www.e-flux.com/journal/free/ [07.06.2013].
1.) Hannah Arendt, “What is Freedom?” Chapter VI “Revolution and Preservation” in The Portable Hannah Arendt, (ed. Peter R. Baehr) (Penguin, London:, Penguin, 2000), 455.
2.) See Dietrich Lemke’s “Mourning Bologna” in this issue, http://e-flux.com/journal/view/123.
3.) Marion von Osten and Eva Egermann, “Twist and Shout,” in Curating and the Educational Turn: 2, eds. Paul O’Neill and Mick Wilson (London: Open Editions; Amsterdam: de Appel, forthcoming).
4.) Giorgio Agamben, “What is an Apparatus?” in What is an Apparatus? and Other Essays, eds. and trans. David Kishik and Stefan Pedatella (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2009), 12.
5.) Michel Foucault, “Two Lectures,” in Power/Knowledge: Selected Interviews and Other Writings, 1972–1977, ed. Colin Gordon, trans. Colin Gordon, Leo Marshall, John Mepham, and Kate Soper (London: Harvester, 1980), 81.
6.) Isabelle Stengers, “Experimenting with Refrains: Subjectivity and the Challenge of Escaping Modern Dualism,” in Subjectivity 22 (2008): 38–59.
7.) This is Chris Anderson’s argument in Free: The Future of a Radical Price (New York: Random House, 2009).
8.) See http://www.wired.com/techbiz/it/magazine/16-03/ff_free.
9.) See Cory Doctorow, “Chris Anderson‘s Free adds much to The Long Tail, but falls short, “ Guardian (July 28, 2009), http://www.guardian.co.uk/technology/blog/2009/jul/28/cory-doctorow-free-chris-anderson.
10.) Agamben, “What is an Apparatus?” 22.
11.) See for example: Copenhagen Free University, http://www.copenhagenfreeuniversity.dk/freeutv.html Universidad Nómada, http://www.sindominio.net/unomada/ Facoltà di Fuga, http://www.rekombinant.org/fuga/index.php
The Independent Art School, http://www.independent-art-school.org.uk/ Informal Universityin Foundation, http://www.jackie-inhalt.net/
Mobilized Investigation, http://manifestor.org/mi
Minciu Sodas, http://www.ms.lt/ , including http://www.cyfranogi.com/, http://groups.yahoo.com/group/backtotheroot/, http://www.onevillage.biz/
Pirate University, http://www.pirate-university.org/
Autonomous University of Lancaster, http://www.knowledgelab.org
Das Solidarische Netzwerk für offene Bildung (s.n.o.b.), Marburg (Germany), http://deu.anarchopedia.org/snob
The Free/Slow University of Warsaw, http://www.wuw2009.pl/
The University of Openness, http://p2pfoundation.net/University_of_Openness
Manoa Free University, http://www.manoafreeuniversity.org/
L’université Tangente, http://utangente.free.fr/
12.) Von Osten and Egermann, “Twist and Shout.”
13.) See Irit Rogoff, “Smuggling – An Embodied Criticality, “ available on the website of the European Institute for Progressive Cultural Policies,
http://eipcp.net/dlfiles/rogoff-smuggling.
14.) See Lisa Adkins and Celia Lury, “What is the Empirical?” European Journal of Social Theory 12, no. 1 (February 2009): 5–20.
15.) Geoff Quinn, interview by Evan Davis, The Bottom Line, BBC, February 18, 2010, available online at http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b00qps85#synopsis
16.) Keller Easterling, Enduring Innocence: Global Architecture and its Masquerades (Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press, 2005), 3.
17.) Jean-Luc Nancy, Being Singular Plural (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2000), xi.
Kritische Kunstvermittlung
Die Voraussetzung für solche »Reflexionen zweiter Ordnung « ist, so würde ich behaupten, die Möglichkeit, in der Kunstvermittlung eine kritische Haltung einzunehmen. Doch was bedeutet das? Was ist Kritik?, fragte Michel Foucault, und seine oft zitierte »erste Definition« dafür lautet: »die Kunst nicht dermaßen regiert zu werden«8. In diesem Zusammenhang spricht er von »Entunterwerfung«:
»Vor allem aber sieht man, daß der Entstehungsherd der Kritik im wesentlichen das Bündel der Beziehungen zwischen der Macht, der Wahrheit und dem Subjekt ist. Wenn es sich bei der Regierungsintensivierung darum handelt, in einer sozialen Praxis die Individuen zu unterwerfen – und zwar durch Machtmechanismen, die sich auf Wahrheit berufen, dann würde ich sagen, ist die Kritik die Bewegung, in welcher sich das Subjekt das Recht herausnimmt, die Wahrheit auf ihre Machteffekte hin zu befragen und die Macht auf ihre Wahrheitsdiskurse hin. Dann ist die Kritik die Kunst der freiwilligen Unknechtschaft, der reflektierten Unfügsamkeit. In dem Spiel, das man die Politik der Wahrheit nennen könnte, hätte die Kritik die Funktion der Entunterwerfung.«9
Sich das Recht herauszunehmen, die Wahrheit auf ihre Machteffekte hin zu befragen und die Macht auf ihre Wahrheitsdiskurse hin, ist für Kunstvermittler_innen alles andere als selbstverständlich. Die Motivationen und beruflichen Hintergründe von Kunstvermittler_innen sind heterogen – meist jedoch aber ist die von Pierre Bourdieu und Alain Darbel beschriebene »Liebe zur Kunst«10 ein wichtiger Motor für die Kunst, sich in dermaßen schlechten Arbeitsverhältnissen dermaßen leidenschaftlich zu engagieren. Kunstvermittlung ist bis vor nicht langer Zeit vor allem ein Praxisfeld gewesen, Theoriebildung und Forschung sind in diesem Bereich noch jung. Die meiste davon ist nicht als kritisch im beschriebenen Sinne zu verstehen, sondern knüpft sich in ihren Fragestellungen an die »Reflexion ersten Grades« an: Sie untersucht Gelingensbedingungen und Wirkungen von Kunst- und Kulturvermittlung auf die Teilnehmer_innen, ohne die Macht-Wissens-Komplexe, die die Kriterien für Gelingen und für erwünschte Effekte hervorbringen, zu hinterfragen. Obwohl es, wie unter anderen Felicity Allen in ihrem Beitrag »Situating Gallery Education« zeigt, eine historische Linie der Kunstvermittlung gibt, die mit Aktivismus und einer offensiven Hinterfragung und Bearbeitung von Machtverhältnissen im Kunstfeld verknüpft ist, ist eine kritische Haltung nicht im Selbstverständnis von Kunstvermittler_innen angelegt oder vorausgesetzt. Es mag noch angehen, die Erzählung oder den kollegialen Umgang einer Kolleg_in, einer Kurator_in in Frage zu stellen. Aber zum Beispiel in Frage zu stellen, warum es eigentlich Kurator_innen, Vermittler_innen, ein Publikum oder eine Kunstinstitution in der bestehenden Anordnung geben muss und wie es dazu gekommen ist, dass sie in dieser Anordnung mehr oder weniger ungestört mit relativer Machtfülle ausgestattet fortexistieren, ist schwieriger. Oder zu fragen, warum es eigentlich immer darum gehen muss, jemanden an etwas »heranzuführen« oder »Schwellen abzubauen«. Denn so zu fragen bedeutet, an dem Ast zu sägen, auf dem man sitzt – die eigenen Bedingungen und Setzungen zur Disposition zu stellen.
Es bedeutet, »sich selbst zu widersprechen«12, wie es die marxistische Soziologin und Psychologin Frigga Haug benennt. Frigga Haug beschreibt in ihrem Text »Zum Verhältnis von Erfahrung und Theorie in subjektwissenschaftlicher Forschung« 2004 eine Begebenheit aus ihrer Forschung zur Lehrer_innenbildung. Eine Gruppe von Erzieher_innen startet den Versuch, Erfahrungen in dem Alternativen Kindergarten zu analysieren, davon eigene Lerngewinne abzuleiten und zu beschreiben. In einem ersten Schritt entstehen dabei zwei normativ aufgeladene Allgemeinplätze – beides Artikulationen des »schon Gewussten«: erstens, »Kinder möchten Entscheidungen selbst machen«, und zweitens, »Kinder lieben es, bei Erwachsenen zu sein, daher ist Zwang überflüssig«. In der darauffolgenden Analyse arbeitete Frigga Haug mit der Gruppe die gouvernementale Verfasstheit dieser alternativpädagogischen Setzungen heraus: Die Kernthese, die sich in der Beschreibung implizit artikulierte, hieß, darauf konnte sich die Gruppe einigen: »Unser Ziel ist es, dass jedes Subjekt die allgemeinen Regeln in sich trägt und sich von sich aus an sie hält.« Für Haugg ist die in diesem Analyseprozess praktizierte Form des Sich-selbst-Widersprechens, des radikalen Offenlegens von Vorannahmen, die der Produktion der für das eigene Feld konstitutiven Wahrheiten zugrunde liegen, und der Gewalt, die im wohlmeinenden Wollen liegt, notwendig, um »zwischen der Scylla eines ›innen‹ hockenden autonomen Subjekts und der Charybdis völliger Durchdrungenheit von Herrschaft einen Weg zu finden, wie die einzelnen sich als Mitglieder einer Gesellschaft erfahren«13 und gesellschaftliche Bedingungen gestalten können.
Kunstvermittlung mit einer kritischen Haltung zu betreiben, würde demzufolge ebenfalls bedeuten, sich in Widerspruch gegenüber dem »schon Gewussten« – den dominanten Erzählungen, Versprechen und Legitimationsweisen der Kunstvermittlung selbst – zu begeben und die Gewaltverhältnisse offenzulegen, die diesen Erzählungen, Versprechen und Legitimationsweisen innewohnen. Zum Beispiel gegenüber den darin artikulierten hegemonialen Bildungsansprüchen und gegenüber deren Eingebundensein in eine neoliberale Agenda. Kritische Kunstvermittler_innen glauben nicht, dass Kunst per se gut für alle Menschen ist, sondern erkennen das zurichtende in dieser Setzung. Sie wollen nicht, dass ihre Bildungsarbeit dazu führt, »Arbeitskräfte auszubilden, die kreativ und flexibel sind«14, wie es in der 2010 veröffentlichten UNESCO-»Roadmap for Arts Education« heißt, sondern sie streben die Bildung von Widerständigem an. Sie begeben sich aber auch in Widerspruch zu den Heroisierungen emanzipatorischer pädagogischer Ansätze und befragen diese unter anderem auf ihre autoritativen Elemente und wiederum auf ihre Anschlussfähigkeit an neoliberale Verhältnisse.15 Sie arbeiten gezielt gegen das, was wir am Institute for Art Education (IAE) ironisch das »Sparkling Eye Syndrome« nennen: die oft gehörte Aussage von Kolleg_innen aus der Vermittlung, sie bräuchten weder Theorie noch Kritik noch Reflexivität, solange ihnen die strahlenden Kinderaugen versicherten, dass das, was sie täten, sinnvoll und richtig sei.
Angesichts einer Definition für Kunstvermittlung, wie sie zum Beispiel das Engage Network vorlegt – »Gallery education is a changing body of practice that exists to broaden understanding and enjoyment of the visual arts – through projects and programmes that help schoolchildren and the wider community become confident in their understanding and enjoyment of the visual arts and galleries« –, schlagen ihre Herzen nicht automatisch schneller oder höher wegen des evokativen Charakters von »understanding« und »enjoyment« und der autorisierten Bestätigung, dass sie an diesem aufklärerischen und vergnügenerzeugenden Projekt zentral beteiligt sind. Sondern sie fragen danach, wer jeweils definiert, was »verstehen« heißt und was verstanden werden soll. Und wer festlegt, was Vergnügen bedeutet und wie es sich artikulieren darf.
Kein Wunder, dass kritische Kunstvermittler_innen häufig bei ihren Kolleg_innen nicht ausschließlich beliebt sind. In einem Feld, das stark mit dem Kampf gegen Abwertung, gegen seine eigene Prekarisiertheit und mit Selbstlegitimierung beschäftigt ist, legen sie zusätzliche Stolpersteine aus, spucken in die Suppe und verderben die Party. Sie sind das, was Sara Ahmed, Professorin für Race and Cultural Studies am Goldsmith College in London, in ihrem Buch »The Promise of Happiness«17 als »feminist killjoys«, als Miesmacher_innen oder Spaßverderber_innen, bezeichnet. Diese wissen um die zurichtende und gouvernementale Dimension des Glücksimperativs. Sie bestehen auf das Recht auf Verweigerung des Strebens nach Glück angesichts von patriarchalen und rassistischen Verhältnissen, die nicht dazu angetan sind, glücklich zu machen: Leuchtende Kinderaugen sind nicht das Einzige, wofür es sich zu kämpfen lohnt.
Kritische Kunstvermittlung im Educational Turn in Curating
Verweigerung von Vergnügen als Widerstandspraxis einer Kunstvermittlung in kritischer Haltung? Sicherlich muss Verweigerung als ein Konstitutiv von Kritik verstanden werden (bemerke die negative Formulierungen »Die Kunst NICHT dermaßen regiert zu werden« sowie »Entunterwerfung«). Doch kritische Kunstvermittlung entwickelt davon ausgehend und darüber hinaus auch Handlungsalternativen – nicht zuletzt, um am Ende doch noch zu einem Glücksmoment, zu einem Neu-Denken und Neu-Erfahren von Vergnügen, von Lust an der Sache zu kommen. Denn würde es keine inhaltlich und emotional erfüllenden Momente geben, so wäre es wohl schon aus Selbstschutz das Beste, die Arbeit in der Kunstvermittlung aufzugeben und sich erfreulicheren Vorhaben zuzuwenden. Auch Frigga Haug weist mit Verweis auf Antonio Gramsci darauf hin, dass sich selbst zu widersprechen ein Projekt braucht, das auf Bejahung aus ist: ein Kollektiv, eine Gruppe, die sich gemeinsamer Gesellschaftsgestaltung verpflichtet. Kunstvermittlung als kritische Praxis will die Institutionen und Verhältnisse, in denen sie stattfindet, nicht unverändert lassen. Dies ist die Differenz zur reinen »Reflexivität zweiter Ordnung«, die letztendlich ohne normativ-ethische Entgegensetzungen auskommt und auch schlicht zur Optimierung der bestehenden Verhältnisse dienen kann.18
Betrachtet man die Umrisse einer kritischen Kunstvermittlung in der Perspektive des educational turn, der seit einigen Jahren im kuratorischen Feld praktiziert und diskutiert wird, so scheinen auf den ersten Blick Potenziale einer solchen Erfüllung im Sinne eines Verwirklichen von Forderungen auf. Gleichzeitig entstehen jedoch auch neue Ambivalenzen. Um diese zu verdeutlichen, möchte ich in aller Kürze noch einmal in Erinnerung rufen: Es handelt sich beim educational turn um eine seit etwa 2006 unter diesem Begriff wahrgenommene Hinwendung des kuratorischen und künstlerischen Feldes zum Pädagogischen. Diese Hinwendung ist meist verknüpft mit einer Kritik an der Ökonomisierung von Bildung, von künstlerischer Ausbildung und von institutionalisierter Wissensproduktion im Zuge des neoliberalen Umbaus westlicher Gesellschaften und ihrer Bildungsinstitutionen unter dem Stichwort »kognitiver Kapitalismus«. Dabei und daher gilt das besondere Interesse den emanzipativen pädagogischen Ansätzen, wobei das Spektrum der Referenzen sehr unterschiedliche Positionen, von Paulo Freire über bell hooks bis Jacques Rancière, umfasst. Der turn artikuliert sich zum Beispiel in pädagogisch informierten, häufig stark auf Selbststeuerung setzenden Formaten im Kunstraum,19 in der künstlerischen Re-Aktualisierung von künstlerisch-pädagogischen Formaten wie dem Brecht-Weill’schen Singspiel,20 in der Verschränkung der Produktion von künstlerischen und didaktischen Materialien,21 aber auch in künstlerischen Projekten, die das pädagogische Dispositiv untersuchen.22
Es scheint so, als ginge der Kunstvermittlung im Zuge des educational turn in curating der traditionelle Counterpart verloren: Plötzlich teilt sie mit der kuratorischen Position die gleichen Ziele, verhält sich dieser gegenüber also affirmativ. Positiv formuliert: Es zeichnet sich die Möglichkeit ab, dass kritische Kurator_innen, Künstler_innen und Vermittler_innen beginnen, am gleichen Strang zu ziehen und die »kritische Institution«, wie sie Andrea Fraser im fast gleichnamigen Text in der Zeitschrift Artforum im Herbst 2005 einfordert,23 zu realisieren. Doch bis dahin bleibt noch ein bisschen etwas zu tun. Die oben angeführten Handlungsparadigmen wenden sich im Zuge des educational turn in curating zur Zeit gerne einmal in einen Imperativ. Dies führt zu inhaltlichen wie methodischen Kurzschlüssen, zu Einverleibungen der marginalisierten Position der Vermittlung durch die dominante Position des Kuratierens, aber ohne strukturelle Verbesserungen oder Verschiebungen in den Machtverhältnissen. Was bedeutet es, »nicht dermaßen regiert zu werden« oder »Entunterwerfung« zu betreiben, wenn das Regime genau das von einem verlangt, aber weder die Bedingungen dafür herstellt noch zur Selbstveränderung in Bezug auf die eigenen Privilegien bereit ist? Es zeigt sich auch hier, dass »Anerkennung« stets von einer machtvollen Position aus geleistet wird.
So bildete sich zum Beispiel 2007 bei der documenta12, die Vermittlung zur kuratorischen Thematik erklärte und ihr einen vergleichsweise prominenten Platz und viele Gestaltungsmöglichkeiten einräumte, diese Zentralität nicht in der Verteilung der Ressourcen ab: Der Beirat, das Projekt zur Zusammenarbeit mit der lokalen Bevölkerung, bekam von der documenta kaum Mittel, und die Vermittlung wurde weiter als Quelle zur Einkommensgenerierung eingesetzt. Das bedeutete, dass die Besucher_innen für die Führungen bezahlen mussten. Dies resultierte in einem Double Bind der Ziele der Vermittlung zwischen kritischer Praxis und Dienstleistung: Einerseits wurde von ihr erwartet, die Frage nach dem Bildungsgeschehen in der Ausstellung zum Gegenstand der Vermittlung selbst zu machen, das Publikum also zu einer Reflexion über Vermittlung einzuladen. Andererseits erwartete das zahlende Publikum weiterhin, in so kurzer Zeit wie möglich so viel Information über die künstlerischen Arbeiten wie möglich zu bekommen. Die Vermittler_innen arbeiteten dabei wie immer in den oben erwähnten prekären Verhältnissen. Trotz dieser ökonomischen Konditionen und trotz des Anspruchs an die Vermittlung, sie solle experimentell und kritisch sein, existierte weiterhin ein relativ hoher Level an Kontrolle von Seiten des Kuratoriums und des Managements. Es ging auch in diesem Fall darum, eine permanente »Vermittlung nach innen« zu leisten und zum Beispiel der kuratorischen Seite verständlich zu machen, inwieweit sich pädagogische Arbeit zuweilen in den Zielen, Ethiken, Ästhetiken, Tempi, Verfahren und Repräsentationen von der Kunstproduktion und -distribution unterscheidet.
Bei der Gestaltung der Ausstellung wurde die Vermittlung und das bei ihr vorhandene Wissen nicht von Anfang an einbezogen, was zu vermeidbaren pragmatischen Pannen, beispielsweise auf der Ebene der Signalisation in der Ausstellung, führte.24
Was sich 2007 auf der documenta 12 abzeichnete, spiegelte sich 2011 auf einem anderen internationalen Kunstereignis, dem «Encuentro international de Medellín 2011« (MDE 11) in Kolumbien. Die drei Monate dauernde Folge von Workshops, Seminaren, partizipatorisch angelegten Kunstprojekten, Medialabs und einer großen Ausstellung mit Positionen aus Lateinamerika, Nordamerika und Europa trug den Untertitel «Lehren und Lernen. Orte des Wissens in der Kunst«.25 Obwohl der Träger dieses Ereignisses das größte und älteste Museum des Landes war, das zudem eine der engagiertesten (und auch kritischsten) Vermittlungsabteilungen hat,26 wurde das Vermittlungsteam des Museums weder inhaltlich- konzeptionell noch organisatorisch in die Planung einbezogen. Die Führungen wurden von Kunststudierenden auf der Basis unbezahlter Praktika geleistet und unterschieden sich kaum von anderen monologischen Ausstellungsführungen, was zu den Projekten im Zeichen kritischer Pädagogik in einem unglücklichen Verhältnis stand. Solange also im Vorfeld eines Kunstereignisses wie dem MDE 11 durch ein eingeladenes Projekt die Frage gestellt werden muss: »Wo bleibt das pädagogische Wissen bei MDE 11? Wo bleibt die Arbeit der Vermitler_innen, Pädagog_innen und der lokalen Netze mit ihrem Wissen und ihren Positionierungen, wenn sie mit Künstler_innen arbeiten oder kooperieren?«27, bleibt es für die Vermittlung schwierig, sich über den educational turn in curating zu freuen. Doch auch bei einigen der Kunstprojekte, die sich selbst als partizipatorisch auswiesen, waren die Konfliktlinien evident, die sich zum Beispiel aus dem Aufeinanderprallen von Territorialisierungs- und Vereinnahmungstendenzen oder der Priorisierung formal-ästhetischer Kriterien durch den internationalen Kunstbetrieb einerseits und den Anforderungen, Solidaritäten und ethischen Grundsätzen einer aktivistischen und pädagogischen Arbeit innerhalb globaler urbaner Kontexte andererseits ergeben.28 Irritierend erscheint im Angesicht dieser Realitäten die heroische Rolle, die der Kunst und insbesondere der Künstler_in als pädagogische Akteur_in im Zuge des educational turn zugeschrieben wird. Künstler_innen scheinen in dieser Perspektive grundsätzlich als die besseren, radikaleren Pädagog_innen und Kunst als probater Gegenentwurf angesichts des Versagens des pädagogischen Apparates und seiner Protagonist_innen zu fungieren. Es scheint mitunter, als hätte das Aufgehen der Kunst im Pädagogischen eine Art kathartischen Effekt für die Kunst, als fände durch diese »neuen« kollaborativen Praktiken eine Selbstreinigung statt von aller bisher geleisteten Kritik an den künstlerischen Avantgarden und ihrer tiefen Verstricktheit in das kapitalistische und das koloniale Projekt. Als würden Künstler_innen, wenn sie sich pädagogischer Methoden bedienen und in Kooperationen mit Menschen einsteigen, nicht machtvoll handeln. Und als produzierten die künstlerisch-edukativen Unternehmungen und die Ausstellungen darüber keine Ausschlusseffekte, so wie sonst im künstlerischen Feld.
Würde die Frage nach den Bedingungen einer gleichberechtigten Kooperation mit der an der Institution vorhandenen Vermittlung und dem lokalen Bildungsfeld bereits lange im Vorfeld eines kuratorischen Vorhabens und in der Perspektive einer kritischen Praxis gestellt werden, so läge darin ein bislang nicht realisiertes Potenzial. Denn zwischen den Intentionen und Praktiken einer kritisch-selbstreflexiven Kunstvermittlung und den künstlerischen und kuratorischen Befragungen im Rahmen des educational turn gibt es, wie in diesem Text vielleicht schon implizit deutlich geworden sein mag, viele korrespondierende Ambivalenzen und Widersprüche, und damit eigentlich viele produktive Verknüpfungsmöglichkeiten der kuratorischen, künstlerischen und vermittlerischen Wissensproduktion.
Ein unauflösbarer Widerspruch betrifft die Spannung zwischen der Produktion von Ausschlüssen und dem Paternalismus gezielter Einladungs- und Inklusionspolitiken. In der Tradition einer kritisch-selbstreflexiven Vermittlungsarbeit werden paternalistische Adressierungen von sogenannten »Benachteiligten«, »bildungs-« oder »kunstfernen Gruppen«, die nicht von alleine in die Ausstellungen kommen, auf ihren Paternalismus und ihre disziplinatorische Dimension hin hinterfragt.
Die Frage ist: Was bedeutet es, Gruppen einzuladen, die nicht von alleine kommen, ohne ihnen entweder Möglichkeiten einer Mitgestaltung und einer Veränderung kuratorischer und institutioneller Inhalte und Gegebenheiten zu eröffnen oder zumindest die Bedingungen ihres In-der-Ausstellung-Seins und eigenständige Nutzungsmöglichkeiten der Ausstellung zum Gegenstand der gemeinsamen Reflexion und Entwicklung zu machen? Es bedeutet, dass die Vermittlung als bildungsbürgerliches Missionsprojekt agiert. Umgekehrt finden viele der künstlerischen und kuratorischen Projekte im Zuge des educational turn oder in kritischer Perspektive ausschließlich mit habituell sehr ähnlich verfassten Akteur_innen statt. Aus dem Wunsch heraus, auf keinen Fall paternalistisch zu agieren, richten sie sich nur an die, die von selbst ein Interesse an der Teilnahme haben – und perpetuieren dadurch soziale Ungleichheit.
Auf Einladungspolitiken und auf die Arbeit an Inklusion zu verzichten, ist nicht die Antwort auf Paternalismus. Eine kritische kuratorische und vermittelnde Praxis kann diesen Widerspruch nicht auflösen, sondern muss die Arbeit in der Ambivalenz betreiben – in einem Zustand des permanenten Sich-selbst-Widersprechens. Dabei könnte eine Allianzenbildung im Sinne eines gemeinsamen Reflektierens und Entwickelns von Handlungsmöglichkeiten Perspektiven aufzeigen.
Ebenso bei einem weiteren unauflösbaren Widerspruch, welcher den Wunsch der Kooperation auf Augenhöhe von einer machtvollen Position aus betrifft: Wenn eine Institution wie ein Museum sich in Kooperation zum Beispiel mit aktivistischen Projekten oder mit kleinen Bildungseinrichtungen begibt, so tut sie das meistens aus einer machtvollen Position heraus. Diese muss nicht immer materiell begründet sein, sondern liegt zuallererst im symbolischen, im kulturellen und sozialen Kapital der Institution. Um diesen unauflösbaren Widerspruch produktiv zu machen, ist die Arbeit an der bewussten Herstellung von Verhältnissen auf Augenhöhe notwendig, die von der Institution aktiv und in Kooperation mit ihren jeweiligen Partner_innen betrieben werden muss. Erfahrungen wie die der dünnen Trennungslinie zwischen aktiv ein Projekt Mitgestaltenden einerseits und der Instrumentalisierung der Teilnehmer_innen als »Material für Kunstprojekte« andererseits oder zwischen einer ausgeglichenen Interessenslage einerseits und einer Ausbeutung von Arbeitskraft mit dem Argument symbolischer Entschädigung andererseits, bilden im Grunde ein geteiltes Wissen in allen drei professionellen Feldern: dem Kuratieren, der auf Partizipation und Bildung ausgerichteten Kunstproduktion und der Vermittlung. Wahrscheinlich teilen sie nicht in allen Situationen die gleichen Einschätzungen. Doch steht für mich fest, dass ein multiperspektivisches Nachdenken und Entwickeln von Handlungsoptionen dazu beitragen könnte, die Selbstreflexivität und das Fällen bewusster und begründeter Entscheidungen zu fördern.
Mit dem Nachdenken über das Agieren in Machtverhältnissen verbunden ist auch die Frage nach der Ambivalenz der Repräsentation von Projekten der Vermittlung wie auch von künstlerisch-edukativen Projekten.
Während die Kunstinstitution ästhetisch hochgradig reguliert und normativ agiert, mit einem empfindlichen Sensorium gegenüber der Form, sind die von Teilnehmer_innen und Kooperationspartner_innen hergestellten Selbstrepräsentationen häufig nicht mit diesen Ansprüchen vereinbar. Es treffen hier unterschiedliche Notwendigkeiten, Qualitätsvorstellungen und Interessen in Bezug auf Repräsentation aufeinander. Von kuratorischer Seite heißt die Antwort auf diese Spannung bislang häufig Einverleibung oder Ausschluss: Entweder ein Projekt passt sich auf der Repräsentationsebene den Gestaltungsparametern des im Kunstfeld Anerkannten an oder es wird nicht sichtbar bzw. findet gar nicht erst statt. Selbstreflexive Vermittlung dagegen versucht, sich in dem zu üben, was ich »Peinlichkeitsfähigkeit« nenne, das heißt, die ästhetischen Artikulationen und Selbstrepräsentationen aller Beteiligten möglichst gleich zu werten. Dies geht jedoch häufig zu Lasten einer informierten und reflektierten formalen Gestaltung von Sichtbarkeit, die wiederum dem Projekt und seinen Akteur_innen politisch nützen würde. Auch bei dieser Gratwanderung bzw. den damit verbundenen Aushandlungsprozessen würde eine Allianz zwischen kritisch-selbstreflexiver Vermittlung, kuratorischer und künstlerischer Praxis möglicherweise zu interessanten Ergebnissen führen.
Eine Zusammenarbeit von Vermitteln und Kuratieren unter diesen Vorzeichen, ein Hereinholen dieser Fragen und Konflikte in die Räume des educational turn, würde aus meiner Sicht neue Möglichkeiten für eine institutionelle Praxis nach der Institutionskritik eröffnen – eine Praxis, für die es bisher keine überzeugenden Beispiele gibt, auch wenn sie an manchen Stellen im Beginnen begriffen ist. Eine Voraussetzung für eine solche Allianzenbildung – will sie selbst dem egalitären und herrschaftskritischen Anspruch des educational turn gerecht werden – wäre, die Kunstvermittlung auch im kuratorischen Feld als eigenständige kulturelle Praxis der Wissensproduktion anzuerkennen.
Wiederabdruck
Dieser Text erschien in: Beatrice Jaschke, Nora Sternfeld (Hg.), educational turn. Handlungsräume der Kunst- und Kulturvermittlung, Wien 2012, S. 55–78.
1.) Zu gegenderten Taktiken und »sexueller Arbeit« in der Kunstvermittlung vgl. Nora Landkammer, „Rollen Fallen. Für Kunstvermittlerinnen vorgesehene Rollen, ihre Gender-Codierung und die Frage, welcher taktische Umgang möglich ist“, in: Carmen Mörsch und das Forschungsteam der documenta 12 (Hg.), Kunstvermittlung 2. Zwischen kritischer Praxis und Dienstleistung auf der documenta 12, Zürich/Berlin 2009, S. 147–158 sowie im gleichen Band: Sandra Ortmann, »Das hätten Sie uns doch gleich sagen können, dass der Künstler schwul ist«. Queere Aspekte der Kunstvermittlung auf der documenta 12, S. 257–277.
2.) Vgl. dazu zentral den Band: Tony Bennett, The Birth of the Museum. History, Theory, Politics, London/New York 1995.
3.) Colin Trodd, “Culture, Class, City: The National Gallery. London and the Spaces of Education 1822–57“, in: Marcia Pointon (Hg.), Art Apart: Art Institutions and Ideology across England and North America, Manchester 1994, S. 41.
4.) Vgl. hierzu u. a. die Beiträge in den Publikationen: schnittpunkt – Beatrice Jaschke, Charlotte Martinz-Turek, Nora Sternfeld (Hg.), Wer spricht? Autorität und Autorschaft in Ausstellungen, Wien 2005 sowie Carmen Mörsch und das Forschungsteam der documenta 12 (Hg.), Kunstvermittlung 2. Zwischen kritischer Praxis und Dienstleistung auf der documenta 12, Zürich/Berlin 2009.
5.) Artnet News, 29.09.2009; http://www.artnet.com/magazineus/ news/artnetnews/moma-preview9-29-09.asp (28.07.2011).
6.) Janna Graham, Spanners in the Spectacle: Radical Research at the Frontline, 01.04.2010, © Fuse Magazine Spring 2010, http://www.faqs.org/periodicals/201004/2010214291.html [27.07.2011].
7.) http://embassyofpiracy.org/2009/05/thanks-to-sale-wehave- physical-space-in-venice/ (28.07.2011); siehe zum Streik der Saisonarbeiter_innen auf der Venedig Biennale 2009 auch: http://carrotworkers.wordpress.com/2009/08/04/strike-at-thebiennale- of-venice/#more-147 [29.07.2011].
8.) »Als erste Definition der Kritik schlage ich also die allgemeine Charakterisierung vor: die Kunst nicht dermaßen regiert zu werden.« Michel Foucault, Was ist Kritik?, Berlin 1992, S. 12.
9.) Ebenda, S. 15.
10.) Pierre Bourdieu, Alain Darbel, Die Liebe zur Kunst: Europäische Kunstmuseen und ihre Besucher, Konstanz 2006.
11.) Felicity Allen, “Situating Gallery Education“, in: David Dibosa (Hg.), Tate Encounters [E]dition 2: Spectatorship, Subjectivity and the National Collection of British Art, 02/ 2008, http://www2.tate.org.uk/tate-encounters/edition-2/papers.shtm [18.06.2012].
12.) »Das theoretische Problem aber für eine Subjektwissenschaft wie die Kritische Psychologie besteht darin, zugleich von den Subjekten auszugehen, sie zum Sprechen und Forschen zu bringen und zugleich damit einen Fragerahmen so zu gestalten, dass es den einzelnen möglich wird, sich selbst zu widersprechen.« Frigga Haug, „Zum Verhältnis von Erfahrung und Theorie in subjektwissenschaftlicher Forschung“, in: Forum Kritische Psychologie 47, 2004, S. 70.
13.) Ebenda.
14.) »21st Century societies are increasingly demanding workforces that are creative, flexible, adaptable and innovative and education systems need to evolve with these shifting conditions. Arts Education equips learners with these skills […]«, in: UNESCO, Roadmap for Arts Education, Lissabon/Seoul 2005 und 2010, S. 5, http://www.unesco.org/new/fileadmin/MULTIMEDIA/HQ/CLT/CLT/ pdf/Arts_Edu_RoadMap_en.pdf (20.04.2012).
15.) So lädt z. B. Ivan Illichs Klassiker der emanzipativen Pädagogik »De-Schooling Society« aus dem Jahr 1971 mit seiner Betonung des Bildens von Netzwerken und von Selbstorganisation zu einer kritischen Re-Lektüre in der Gegenwart ein; so geschehen in der Keynote von Christopher Robbins: »Escape from Politics – The Challenge of Pedagogy and Democratic Politics in the De/schooled Society« auf der Tagung »De-Schooling Society«, Serpentine Gallery und Hayward Gallery London, 29. / 30.04.2010
16.) Dies ist eine Definition für »Gallery Education«, die bis letztes Jahr auf der Homepage des englischsprachigen Netzwerks für Kunstvermittler_innen Engage zu finden war. Der Text wurde inzwischen ausgewechselt, siehe http://www.engage.org/about/ whatis.aspx [20.04.2012].
17.) Sara Ahmed, The Promise of Happiness, Durham 2010.
18.) Leitlinien für Handlungsalternativen im Zeichen einer Kunstvermittlung als kritischer, verändernder Praxis wurden bereits von mehreren Autor_innen und Protagonist_innen, u. a. Nora Sternfeld, Eva Sturm, Janna Graham oder mir selbst, umrissen.
19.) Ein aktuelles Beispiel aus der Entstehungszeit dieses Textes ist das Projekt »Wide open School« der Hayward Gallery in London. Im Ankündigungstext auf der Website des Southbank Centre heißt es: »This summer, for one month only, the Hayward Gallery transforms into Wide Open School. An experiment in public learning, Wide Open School offers a programme devised and fuelled by the imaginations of more than 80 artists from over 40 different countries. Intended as a meeting place for people who love learning but don’t necessarily like being taught, Wide Open School presents the opportunity for people of all ages and walks of life to explore different ways of learning about a wide variety of subjects, alongside leading artists.« http://ticketing.southbankcentre. co.uk/find/festivals-series/wide-open-school [14.05.2012].
20.) Vgl. z. B. die Inszenierungen des Petersburger Kollektivs Chto delat?, http://www.chtodelat.org/ [14.05.2012].
21.) Ein Beispiel hierfür sind die gratis zum Download bereitstehenden Videos und Comics des Kollektivs Pinky Show, die nach Selbstauskunft auch von Lehrpersonen für den Unterricht verwendet werden, http://www.pinkyshow.org [14.05.2012].
22.) Vgl. z. B. die Arbeit »Hidden Curriculum« der Künstlerin Annette Krauss.
23.) Andrea Fraser, “From the Critique of Institutions to an Institution of Critique“, in: Artforum, Vol. 44, Iss. 1, New York 2005, S. 278f.
24.) Vgl. Alexander Henschel, „Palmenhaine. Kunstvermittlung als Konstitution von Öffentlichkeit“, in: Carmen Mörsch und das Forschungsteam der documenta 12 (Hg.), Vermittlung 2. Zwischen kritischer Praxis und Dienstleistung auf der documenta 12. Ergebnisse eines Forschungsprojekts, Zürich/Berlin 2009, S. 47–58.
25.) »Enseñar y aprender. Lugares del conocimiento en el arte«. Eine umfassende Dokumentation des Ereignisses findet sich unter http://mde11.org [21.04.2012].
26.) Die Vermittlungsprojekte des Museums lassen sich (auf Spanisch) mitverfolgen, z. B. auf dem Blog »museos y territorios«, http://www.museodeantioquia.org.co/itinerante/ [21.04.2012].
27.) Frage des Kollektivs Transductores, das auf MDE 11 das Projekt »Pedagogías colectivas y escuelas en red« in Kooperation mit der Vermittlungsabteilung des Museo de Antioquia und lokalen Bildungseinrichtungen durchführte. Eine spanischsprachige Dokumentation findet sich unter http://transductores.net/ [21.04.2012].
28.) So wurde in Medellín z. B. seitens des Museums sowohl für die Begleitung der Künstler_innen als auch für ihre Projekte, welche mitunter in angestammte öffentliche Aufenthaltsorte von Besitzlosen intervenierten und diese dadurch zumindest temporär verdrängten, der Schutz von mit Hunden und Maschinengewehren ausgestatteten, uniformierten privaten Wachmannschaften zur Verfügung gestellt. Zur grundsätzlichen Spannung zwischen Kunst(markt) in der Tradition der westlichen Moderne und einem politischen Aktivismus im globalen Kontext vgl. Grant Kester, The one and the many. Contemporary Collaborative Art in a Global Context, Durham 2011.