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Die (Re)Sozialisierung der Kunst
Was kann Kunst zu gesellschaftlichen Transformationen beitragen? Resozialisierung von zeitgenössischer Kunst bedeutet vor allem die Auseinandersetzung und das Agieren innerhalb der Gesellschaft als Teil des künstlerischen Handelns. Resozialisierung kann deshalb auch als Repolitisierung verstanden werden. Sie fordert von der Kunst die Rückgewinnung eines Verhältnisses zur gesellschaftlichen Realität als die Voraussetzung für politische Handlungsfähigkeit und soziale Befreiung. Sie erfordert verantwortungsvolles Handeln und ein kritisches Bewusstsein der Akteure. REINIGUNGSGESELLSCHAFT betrachtet die Herstellung sozialer Praxis aus dem Blickwinkel ihrer Anwendbarkeit. Praxis bedeutet hier bewusstes Handeln. Bei der Betrachtung dieses Handlungskonzeptes sind nicht nur die Auswirkungen auf die Gesellschaft von Bedeutung, sondern auch die Rückwirkungen.
REINIGUNGSGESELLSCHAFT agiert als Forum, das gesellschaftliche Denk- und Handlungsräume interdisziplinär vereint. Mit den Projekten der RG werden emanzipatorische Prozesse für alle Beteiligten bewusst gemacht und damit Voraussetzungen für gesellschaftliche Erneuerungen geschaffen. Die RG drückt diese Zielsetzung in ihrem Namen aus und versteht unter Reinigung den Prozess der Erneuerung. Künstlerinnen und Künstler werden zu Akteuren im gesellschaftlichen Prozess, ihre Aktivitäten tangieren verschiedene Lebensbereiche. Diese Definition besagt, dass Kunst die Aufgabe hat, Teil einer öffentlichen Wertedebatte zu sein und zu gesellschaftlichen Transformationsprozessen beizutragen. Künstlerische Praxis wird zum sozialen Prozess und fügt politischen, wirtschaftlichen und wissenschaftlichen Diskursen eine zusätzliche Dimension hinzu. Es werden Handlungskonzepte entwickelt, die sich auf strukturelle Weise mit ökonomischen und sozialen Verhältnissen beschäftigen.
REINIGUNGSGESELLSCHAFT löst das Konzept Autorenschaft durch einen integrierenden Arbeitsansatz auf. Partner in den verschiedenen Projekten werden zu emanzipierten Protagonisten. Alle teilnehmenden Personen haben die Möglichkeit, ihre Erfahrungen und Vorstellungen mit einzubringen. Die Möglichkeit der direkten Partizipation integriert Personen und befähigt sie, als unabhängige politische Individuen zu handeln.
Hannah Arendts Konzept des politischen Handelns1 spielt im Kultur- und Kunstbereich eine tragende Rolle, indem dieses Handeln in andere gesellschaftliche Bereiche hineinwirkt und zu ihrer Entwicklung beiträgt. Versteht man den Begriff einer integrierten Kunstpraxis als Möglichkeitsform des interdisziplinären Zusammenwirkens unterschiedlicher Kulturen, kann daraus auch ein neues Politikverständnis entstehen. Dabei geht es darum, Wechselwirkungen und Abhängigkeiten in der Gesellschaft, die zu einer zunehmenden Abgrenzung führen, als Integrationschance zu sehen. Dafür ist eine Lösung von existierenden Begriffsdefinitionen notwendig, um sie in einem vernetzten und integrierten Sinn neu zu konstruieren.
Artur .Zmijewskis Essay „Angewandte Gesellschaftskunst“ unternahm den Versuch, im Zuge der 7. Berlin Biennale, eine kritische Auseinandersetzung über die gesellschaftliche Rolle von Kunstprojekten führen. Obwohl richtigerweise Normierungen des politisch Korrekten im institutionellen Kunstbetrieb diskutiert wurden, greift die Debatte zu kurz, weil sie bedauerlicherweise dem Bezugssystem „Kunst“ zu viel Raum gibt, auf Kosten einer übergreifenden gesellschaftlichen Perspektive. Weil es in diesem Sinne ein Missverständnis wäre, von “angewandter Gesellschaftskunst“ zu sprechen, prägte RG den Begriff (Re)Sozialisierung der Kunst.2 Dieses Konzept schließt die gegenseitigen Wechselwirkungen zwischen Kunst und Gesellschaft ein. Re-Sozialisierung steht auch für die Forderung nach Freiräumen jenseits politischer Instrumentalisierung und etablierten Strukturen und Institutionen.
Mit dem Übergang von einem materiellen Kunstbegriff hin zu einem prozessorientierten Ansatz eröffnet sich die Möglichkeit für direkte Wirkungen der Kunst ins alltägliche Leben, verbunden mit der Chance, soziale Defizite zu vermindern. Integrierende Formen der Kooperation und Partizipation können die Formulierung von kulturellen und sozialen Werten unterstützen und bewusst machen, oder wie der in Großbritannien ansässige Forscher und Autor François Matarasso sagt: …raise questions, imagine alternatives, communicate experiences and share ideas.3
Politiken des öffentlichen Raumes
Jacques Rancière spricht davon, das Territorium des Gemeinsamen neu zu gestalten.4 Aus diesem Grund ist es wichtig, die politischen Möglichkeiten des Raumes zu analysieren und zu determinieren. Wenn die etablierten Zweckbestimmungen z. B. des urbanen Raumes in Frage gestellt werden, kann sich ein kritisches Potential entfalten.
Das Ziel künstlerischer Aktivitäten im öffentlichen Raum ist die Schaffung einer neuen Aufmerksamkeit für lokale Identitäten, die Anregung eines öffentlichen Dialogs, die Ausbildung eines Bewusstseins für Funktionen des öffentlichen Raumes, die Erforschung der Beziehungen zwischen persönlichen und gesellschaftlichen Interessen und die Entwicklung einer künstlerischen Praxis, welche gleichzeitig Forschung und Interaktion ist.
Die Aufgabe als Künstler ist es, Prozesse zu initiieren, zu moderieren und abzubilden. Frederic Jameson spricht von der Entwicklung einer Ästhetik, Theorie und Politik der kognitiven Kartographie.5 Sie impliziert, dass Künstler und Theoretiker Orientierungen im globalen gesellschaftlichen Raum vermitteln.
Diese Methode oszilliert zwischen sozialwissenschaftlicher Analyse und ästhetischer Umsetzung mit dem Ziel, kritisches Nachdenken über strukturelle Veränderungen anzuregen. Kernthemen sind Migration und Stadtentwicklung, Umweltbewusstsein, Sicherheit und die Rolle von Kunst in der Gesellschaft. Es geht um die Stärkung der öffentlichen Aufmerksamkeit für sozialpolitische Themen, die Vernetzung der Teilnehmer und Institutionen und die Rolle der Stadt als einen Ort für sozialen Dialog.
Gesellschaftliche Teilhabe, vor allem in den westlichen Post-Industriegesellschaften, findet vordergründig durch Konsum statt. Die Erosion gesellschaftlicher und politischer Institutionen führt in der Verbrauchergesellschaft zu einem Vertrauensverlust in demokratische Prozesse und zur Entstehung von Parallelwelten. Die vorkodierten Wertsysteme bestimmen weiterhin, den sozialen-, politischen-, medialen-, ökonomischen Raum. In einer entsolidarisierten Gesellschaft bieten sich für Künstler und Kulturschaffende Handlungsfelder, in denen sie sich mit Ausgeschlossenen solidarisieren und ein kritisches Bewusstsein vermitteln können.
Eine diskursive kulturelle Praxis kann dazu beitragen, gesellschaftliche Wertvorstellungen neu zu denken und weiterzuentwickeln. Dabei ist es wichtig, ästhetische Grundsätze mit ethischen, sozialen und ökologischen zu synchronisieren. Eine emanzipatorische Aufgabe liegt darin, bestehende Macht- und Institutionsstrukturen zu hinterfragen. Durch Partizipation und Vernetzung unterschiedlicher Akteure entsteht Identifikation mit übergreifenden Inhalten und neue Interessengruppen haben die Möglichkeit, sich zu formieren.
Ein kognitiver Kunstbegriff
Kunst ist weder ein Feigenblatt der Gesellschaft, noch eine Beilage. Vielmehr betrachten wir Kunst als ein Feld mit einer genauen Funktion, welche beinhaltet, dass sie kognitiv ist, der Erkenntnis dient und ein Element des Lernens enthält. In diesem Sinne spielt Kunst eine tragende Rolle, wenn es darum geht, den Herausforderungen der zeitgenössischen Gesellschaft zu begegnen. Wir sehen Verbindungslinien in die Bereiche Bildung, Sport, Umwelt und sozialer Dialog. Eine integrierte Kunstpraxis kann auch dazu beitragen, den Bereich Bildung zu transformieren und neue Wege des Lernens im Dialog mit anderen Disziplinen zu beschreiten. Der Schwerpunkt liegt auf prozessorientierten, dialogischen Formen, die Teilhabe und die Ausbildung sozialer Werte ermöglichen.
Im Bereich Kunst kann man deshalb von einem kognitiven Kunstbegriff sprechen, der empirische Methoden anwendet und Untersuchungsfelder mit dem Ziel der Erkenntnisgewinnung vereint. Soziologen sprechen beispielsweise von einer Kunst, welche die künstlerische Sozial- und Bewusstseinsforschung antreibt. Der Soziologe Karl-Siegbert Rehberg betont den katalysatorischen Wert ihres kritischen Potentials: „Was soziologische Künstler liefern, ist eine kühle, sozusagen entideologisierte Ideologiekritik, ein Durchschauen der Verdeckungsformeln und Machtinteressen durch das bloße Zeigen, eine Dekodierung von Selbstverständlichkeiten, deren Hintergründe wir zumeist nicht mehr bemerken. Das ist die Aufgabe jeder kritischen Analyse. Und Kunstprojekte wie diese, tragen dazu bei, sie in einen neuen Diskursraum zu übersetzen und als „Wissensressource“ fruchtbar zu machen.“6
Kunst und Kultur können die strukturellen gesellschaftlichen Aufgaben, die stets im globalen Kontext zu betrachten sind, nicht lösen. Sie können aber zu einem öffentlichen Problembewusstsein und durch individuelle und lokale Umsetzungen zu Lösungen beitragen. Es geht auch darum, durch eine interdisziplinäre Zusammenarbeit zu neuen Formen eines vernetzten Lernens und Wissensproduktion jenseits der definierten Bereiche zu gelangen. Daraus leiten sich Handlungsstrategien ab, die zur Entwicklung neuer Formen gesellschaftlicher Organisation anwendbar sind.
WiederabdruckDieser Text wurde zuerst veröffentlicht in: Milev, Yana (ed.): Design Anthropology, Peter Lang Publishing Group 2013.
1.) Arendt, Hannah, The Human Condition, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1998.
2.) REINIGUNGSGESELLSCHAFT, The (Re)Socialisation of Art, available at www.reinigungsgesellschaft.de/projekte/_2009/resoc/theses%20and%20questions_en.pdf, accessed 20 August 2011.
3.) Matarasso, François, Re-thinking Cultural Policy, background paper to the conference Culture and the Policies of Change, Brussels, 6-7 September 2010.
4.) Rancière, Jacques, Das Unbehagen in der Ästhetik, Wien: Passagen Verlag, 2008, S. 32.
5.) Jameson, Fredric, Postmodernism & Cultural Theories, Shaanxi: Shaanxi Normal University Press, 1987.
6.) Rehberg, Karl-Siegbert, Arbeit und Konsum: Virtualität als Schicksal, 2008, verfügbar auf http://www.reinigungsgesellschaft.de/texte/RG-Konsum.pdf
1. Marxploitation of the Gothic
The zombie as a figure of alienation is the entranced consumer suggested by Marxian theory. It is Guy Debord’s description of Brigitte Bardot as a rotten corpse and Frederic Jameson’s „death of affect“; and of course what media utopianist Marshall McLuhan called „the zombie stance of the technological idiot.“2 Thus zombification is easily applied to the notion that capital eats up the body and mind of the worker, and that the living are exploited through dead labor.
When Adam Smith invoked the moral operations of the „invisible hand of the market“, he had something else in mind than an integrated world economy that recalls Freud’s unheimlich: „Severed limbs, a severed head, a hand detached from the arm, feet that dance by themselves – all of those have something highly uncanny about them, especially when they are credited with independent activity.“3 Under the globalized reinforcement of capital, the independent activity of ghost limbs is increasingly only apparent, yet no less gratuitous and unsettling.
Economy and production have in this way often been dressed up in Gothic styles; just think of William Blake’s „dark satanic mills“ of industrialization. It is doubtful, of course, that Marx would have endorsed the zombie as a figure of alienation, inasmuch as it incarnates a collapsed dialectics (between life and death, productivity and apathy, etc.) that can only be recaptured with great difficulty. However, leafing through The Communist Manifesto of 1848 one finds rousing Gothic metaphor. The power of class struggle is famously likened to a ghost that is haunting Europe – the „specter of Communism“; we are also told that with the proletariat, the bourgeoisie has produced „its own gravediggers,“ and that modern bourgeois society „has conjured up such gigantic means of production and of exchange“ that it is like „the sorcerer, who is no longer able to control the powers of the netherworld whom he has called up by his spells.“4 The Gothic, understood as the revival of medieval styles in the seventeenth century and since, is the theatrical representation of negative affect that emanates from a drama staged around power; a pessimistic dialectic of enlightenment that shows how rationality flips into barbarism and human bondage. Thus it is puzzling (or populist, agitational) that Marx and Engels employ Gothic metaphor related to the middle ages „that reactionists so much admire.“5 The Gothic contraband in progressive politics is the notion that fear can be sublime. It is as if the reader of the manifesto cannot after all rely on the „sober senses,“ but needs a little extra rhetorical something to compel her to face her „real conditions in life.“6 How did the excess of counter-enlightenment tropes come to prominence in processes of political subjectivation? As Derrida writes in Specters of Marx, „Marx does not like ghosts any more than his adversaries do. He does not want to believe in them. But he thinks of nothing else. … He believes he can oppose them, like life to death, like vain appearances of the simulacrum to real presence.“7 Once it becomes clear that Marxist ghost-hunting is already corrupted by a Gothic impulse, it allows for a reconstruction of Marxist critique; a new „spirit of Marx,“ as discussed by Derrida. In terms of traditional aesthetic hierarchies, the Gothic definitely belongs amongst the underdogs of genres, to the embarrassing aesthetic proletariat. Maybe this is what spoke through Marx, like spirits inhabiting a medium, and helped shaped his formidable literary intuition?
In this perspective there is no political reason to exclude the Gothic. The New York artists collective Group Material were among the first to establish a link between the Gothic and a Marxist line of cultural critique, before the former became a curatorial trope.8 The flyer for their 1980 show „Alienation“ mimicked advertising for Alien, and the film program included James Whale’s Frankenstein (1931). In their installation Democracy (1988), a zombie film was continuously screened throughout the exhibition: Dawn of the Dead, „George Romero’s 1978 paean to the suburban shopping mall and its implicit effects on people.“ The film was „an especially significant presence …, one which indicated the pertinence of consumer culture to democracy and to electoral politics.“9
Franco Moretti makes it clear that you can’t sympathize with those who hunt the monsters. In his brilliant 1978 essay „Dialectic of Fear“ he notes that in classic shockers such as Bram Stoker’s Dracula and Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein „we accept the vices of the monster’s destroyers without a murmur.“10 The antagonist of the monster is a representative of all that is „complacent, stupid, philistine, and impotent“ about existing society. To Moretti this indicates false consciousness in the literature of fear; it makes us side with the bourgeoisie. But by passing judgment on the literature of fear through a dialectic of reason and affect (Stoker „doesn’t need a thinking reader, but a frightened one“), Moretti’s ideology critique joins the ranks of the destroyers of the monster and thereby, on a cultural level, of those fictitious characters he criticizes. In fact, Moretti kills the monster twice: he doesn’t question its killing in the text, and he has no need for it outside the text.
George Romero analyzes the conflict between the monster and its adversaries in a similar vein. Crucially, however, his trilogy Night of the Living Dead (1968), Dawn of the Dead (1978), and Day of the Dead (1985), reverses Moretti’s conclusion, thereby turning cultural space inside out. In Romero, antagonism and horror are not pushed out of society (to the monster) but are rather located within society (qua the monster). The issue isn’t the zombies; the real problem lies with the „heroes“ – the police, the army, good old boys with their guns and male bonding fantasies. If they win, racism has a future, capitalism has a future, sexism has a future, militarism has a future. Romero also implements this critique structurally. As Steven Shaviro observes, the cultural discomfort is not only located in the films’ graphic cannibalism and zombie genocide: the low-budget aesthetics makes us see „the violent fragmentation of the cinematic process itself.“11 The zombie in such a representation may be uncanny and repulsive, but the imperfect uncleanness of the zombie’s face – the bad make-up, the failure to hide the actor behind the monster’s mask – is what breaks the screen of the spectacle.
Brian Holmes writes in „The Affectivist Manifesto“ (2009) that activism today faces „not so much soldiers with guns as cognitive capital: the knowledge society, an excruciatingly complex order. The striking thing … is the zombie-like character of this society, its fallback to automatic pilot, its cybernetic governance.“12 Holmes’s diagnosis gets its punch from the counterintuitive tension between the notion of control and the zombie’s sleepwalking mindlessness. Even our present culture’s schizophrenic scenario of neoliberal economy and post-democratic reinforcement of the state apparatus cannot be reduced to evil. But if Holmes uses the monster trope to define a condition of critical ambiguity, he follows Marxist orthodoxy by setting this definition to work dialectically vis-à-vis an affirmative use of the manifesto format. The manifesto is haunted by its modernist codification as a mobilization of a collective We in a revolutionary Now. This code, and the desire it represents, is invariably transparent to itself, as opposed to the opacity of the zombie.
2. Monster of Mass and Multitude
What most informs metaphorical applications of the zombie is perhaps the functional dimension that its abjectness seems to lend to it. According to Julia Kristeva’s definition, the abject is what I must get rid of in order to be an I.13 The abject is a fantasmatic substance that must be expelled – from the body, from society – in order to satisfy a psychic economy, because it is imagined to have such a likeness or proximity to the subject that it produces panic or repulsion. This, Hal Foster writes, echoing critical preoccupations in the art of the 1980s (the abject) and of the 1990s (the „return of the real“), qualifies the abject as „a regulatory operation.“14 The obverse of the abject is a hygienic operation that promises a blunt instrumentality of getting rid of – of expulsing, excluding, severing, repressing. As we have seen, things are not so clear. The abject sneaks back in as a supplement, subverting attempts at establishing hygienic categories.
I will therefore hypothesize that the zombie’s allegorical (rather than merely metaphorical) potential lies in trying to elaborate and exacerbate the zombie as a cliché of alienation by using it to deliberately „dramatize the strangeness of what has become real,“ as anthropologists Jean and John L. Comaroff characterize the zombie’s cultural function.15 Why would one want to do such a thing? As Deleuze and Guattari had it, the problem with capitalism is not that it breaks up reality; the problem with capitalism is that it isn’t schizophrenic and proliferating enough.16 In other words, it frees desire from traditional libidinal patterns (of family and religion and so on), but it will always want to recapture these energies through profit. According to this conclusion, one way to circumnavigate capitalism would be to encourage its semiotic excess and its speculation in affect. Capitalism is not a totalitarian or tyrannical form of domination. It primarily spreads its effects through indifference (that can be compared to the zombie’s essential lack of protagonism). It is not what capital does, but what it doesn’t do or have: it does not have a concept of society; it does not counteract the depletion of nature; it has no concept of citizenship or culture; and so on. Thus it is a slave morality that makes us cling to capital as though it were our salvation – capitalism is, in fact, what we bring to it. Dramatization of capital through exacerbation and excess can perhaps help distill this state of affairs.
The zombie isn’t just any monster, but one with a pedigree of social critique. As already mentioned, alienation – a Marxian term that has fallen out of use – is central to the zombie. To Marx the loss of control over one’s labor – a kind of viral effect that spreads throughout social space – results in estrangement from oneself, from other people, and from the „species-being“ of humanity as such.17 This disruption of the connection between life and activity has „monstrous effects.“18 Today, in the era of immaterial labor, whose forms turn affect, creativity, and language into economical offerings, alienation from our productive capacities results in estrangement from these faculties and, by extension, from visual and artistic production – and from our own subjectivity. What is useful about the monster is that it is immediately recognizable as estrangement, and in this respect is non-alienating. Secondly, we may address alienation without a concept of nature; a good thing, since the humanism in the notion of „the natural state of man“ (for Marx the positive parameter against which we can measure our alienation) has at this point been irreversibly deconstructed. In other words: the natural state of man is to die, not to end up as undead.
Franco „Bifo“ Berardi describes how Italian Workerist thought of the 1960s overturned the dominant vision of Marxism. The working class was no longer conceived as „a passive object of alienation, but instead the active subject of a refusal capable of building a community starting out from its estrangement from the interests of capitalistic society.“19 For the estranged worker, alienation became productive. Deleuze and Guattari were part of the same generation of thinkers and overturned a traditional view of alienation, for example by considering schizophrenia as a multiple and nomadic form of consciousness (and not as a passive clinical effect or loss of self). They put it radically: „The only modern myth is the myth of zombies – mortified schizos, good for work, brought back to reason.“20
The origin of the zombie in Haitian vodoun has an explicit relationship to labor, as a repetition or reenactment of slavery. The person who receives the zombie spell „dies,“ is buried, excavated, and put to work, usually as a field hand. In his book The Serpent and the Rainbow, ethnobotanist Wade Davis tells the story of a man called Narcisse, a former zombie:
[Narcisse] remembered being aware of his predicament, of missing his family and friends and his land, of wanting to return. But his life had the quality of a strange dream, with events, objects, and perceptions interacting in slow motion, and with everything completely out of his control. In fact there was no control at all. Decision had no meaning, and conscious action was an impossibility.21
The zombie can move around and carry out tasks, but does not speak, cannot fend for himself, cannot formulate thoughts, and doesn’t even know its own name: its fate is enslavement. „Given the colonial history“ – including occupation by France and the US – Davis continues:
the concept of enslavement implies that the peasant fears and the zombie suffers a fate that is literally worse than death – the loss of physical liberty that is slavery, and the sacrifice of personal autonomy implied by the loss of identity.22
That is, more than inexplicable physiological change, victims of voodoo suffer a social and mental death, in a process initiated by fear. The zombie considered as a subaltern born of colonial encounters is a figure that has arisen then out of a new relationship to death: not the fear of the zombie apocalypse, as in the movies, but the fear of becoming one – the fear of losing control, of becoming a slave.
In pop culture the zombie is a twentieth-century monster and hence related to mass phenomena: mass production, mass consumption, mass death. It is not an aristocrat like Dracula or a star freak like Frankenstein; it is the everyman monster in which business as usual coexists with extremes of hysteria (much like democracy at present, in fact). The zombie also straddles the divide between industrial and immaterial labor, from mass to multitude, from the brawn of industrialism to the dispersed brains of cognitive capitalism.
With its highly ambiguous relationship to subjectivity, consciousness, and life itself, we may hence consider the zombie a paradigm of immaterial labor.23 Both the zombie and immaterial labor celebrate logistics and a colonization of the brain and the nervous system. The living dead roam the world and have a genetic relationship with restlessness: they are „pure motoric instinct,“ as it is expressed in Romero’s Dawn of the Dead; or they represent a danger „as long as they got a working thinker and some mobility,“ as one zombie hunter puts it in the novel World War Z by Max Brooks.24 The latter, counterintuitive reference to the zombie’s intellectual capacity may be brought to bear on the terms „intellectual labor“ and „cognitive capitalism,“ used to denote brain-dead – and highly regulated – industries such as advertising and mass media. Or, the „working thinker“ in the zombie’s dead flesh is an indication of the Marxist truth that matter thinks. As Lenin asked: What does the car know – of its own relations of production? In the same way, the zombie may prompt the question: What does the zombie’s rotting flesh know – of the soul? As Spinoza said: what the body can do, that is its soul.25 And the zombie can do quite a lot.
In Philip Kaufman’s 1978 film Invasion of the Body Snatchers, a space plant that duplicates people and brings them back as empty versions of themselves spreads its fibers across the Earth as if it were the World Wide Web. The body-snatched don’t just mindlessly roam the cities in search of flesh and brains, but have occupied the networks of communication and start a planetary operation to circulate bodies, as if proponents of the great transformation from industrialism to immaterial labor, in which production is eclipsed and taken over by a regime of mediation and reproduction. This is our logistical universe, in which things on the move are valorized, and in which more than ever before the exchange of information itself determines communicative form. The nature of what is exchanged recedes in favor of the significance of distribution and dissemination. Exigencies of social adaptation, by now familiar to us, also appear in Invasion. Somebody who has clearly been body-snatched thus tells the main character, played by Donald Sutherland, to not be afraid of „new concepts“: imperatives to socialize and to reinvent oneself, shot through with all the accompanying tropes of self-cannibalization (self-management, self-valuation, self-regulation, self-consume, and so forth). Thus the body snatchers are a caricature of ideal being, incarnating mobility without nervousness.26
3. „Solipsistic and asocial horror“
The necessity of a sociological reading of the modern monster derives, for our purpose, from the pressure that the capitalization of creativity has in the past decade exerted on artistic practice and thinking. Art has become a norm, in a different way than it was under the cultural order of the bourgeoisie. In short, within the „experience economy,“ art’s normative power consists in commodifying a conventional idea of art’s mythical otherness with a view to the reproduction of subjectivity and economy.
Ten years ago, management thinkers James H. Gilmore and B. Joseph Pine II launched the concept of the experience economy with their book The Experience Economy: Work is Theatre and Every Business a Stage. Here they describe an economy in which experience is a new source of profit to be obtained through the staging of the memorable. What is being produced is the experience of the audience, and the experience is generated by means of what may be termed „authenticity effects.“ In the experience economy it is often art and its markers of authenticity – creativity, innovation, provocation, and the like – that ensure economic status to experience.27
Gilmore and Pine advise manufacturers to tailor their products to maximize customer experience, thus valve manufacturers could profitably increase the „pumping experience“; furniture manufacturers might correspondingly emphasize the „sitting experience“; and home-appliance manufacturers could capitalize on the „washing experience,“ the „drying experience,“ and the „cooking experience.“28 The „psychological premise“ of being able to „alter consumers’ sense of reality“ is a central theme.29 Gilmore and Pine’s mission is to highlight the profitability of producing simulated situations. Their arguments will not be subverted by simply pointing out this fact: the experience economy is beyond all ideology inasmuch as it is their declared intention to fake it better and more convincingly. In the experience economy’s ontological displacement towards an instrumentalized phenomenology, it becomes irrelevant to verify the materiality of the experienced object or situation. Memorable authenticity effects are constituted in a register of subjective experience. In other words, one’s own subjectivity becomes a product one consumes, by being provided with opportunities to consume one’s own time and attention through emotive and cognitive responses to objects and situations. Similarly, when the experience economy is applied to cultural institutions and the presentation of art works, it revolves around ways of providing the public with the opportunity to reproduce itself as consumers of cultural experiences.
It is difficult not to see the consequences of the experience economy as the dismantling of not only artistic and institutional signification but also of social connections. Thus the syllabus for the masters-level experience economy course offered by the University of Aarhus explains how consumers within an experience economy function as „hyper-consumers free of earlier social ties, always hunting for emotional intensity,“ and that students of the course are provided with „the opportunity to adopt enterprising behaviours.“30
Cultural critic Diedrich Diederichsen calls such self-consume Eigenblutdoping, blood doping. Just as cyclists dope themselves using their own blood, cultural consumers seek to augment their self-identity by consuming the products of their own subjectivity. According to Diederichsen, this phenomenon is a „solipsistic and asocial horror,“ which reduces life to a loop we can move in and out of without actually participating in any processes.31 Inside these loops, time has been brought to a halt, and the traditional power of the cultural institution is displaced when audiences are invited to play and participate in an ostensible „democratization“ of art. In the loop, audiences ironically lose the possibility of inscribing their subjectivities on anything besides themselves, and are hence potentially robbed of an important opportunity to respond to the institution and the exhibitionary complex where art is presented.
The zombie returns at this point, then, to stalk a new cultural economy that is necessarily already no longer current; nor is it ever outdated, because it cancels cultural time measured in decades and centuries. The time of the experience economy is that of an impoverished present.32
4. The Death of Death
There are several reasons why we need a modern monster. Firstly, it can help us meditate on alienation in our era of an immaterial capitalism that has turned life into cash; into an onto-capitalist, forensic culture in which we turn towards the dead body, not with fear, but as a kind of pornographic curator (as testified to by any number of TV series about vampires, undertakers, and forensics). As Steven Shaviro writes, „zombies mark the rebellion of death against its capitalist appropriation … our society endeavors to transform death into value, but the zombies enact a radical refusal and destruction of value.“33 Shaviro sharply outlines here the zombie’s exit strategy from that strangest of scenarios, the estrangement of death itself. But at the same time, one wonders whether it can be that simple. Immaterial capitalism’s tropes of self-cannibalization render it more ambiguous than ever whether the abject is a crisis in the order of subject and society, or a perverse confirmation of them. In other words, beyond the destruction of value that Shaviro discusses, it all revolves around a riddle: If, during our lifespan as paying beings, life itself has become capital, then where does that leave death?
One answer is that, in a world with no outsides, death died. We are now witnessing the death of death, of which its overrepresentation is the most prominent symptom. For the first time since the end of the Second World War there are no endgame narratives. Apocalyptic horizons are given amnesty. A planet jolted out of its ecological balance is a disaster, but not something important. In art, the mid twentieth century’s „death of the Author“ and „death of Man“ are now highly operational, and the „death of Art,“ a big deal in the 1980s, is now eclipsed by the splendid victory of „contemporary art.“ This in spite of the obvious truth that art, considered as an autonomous entity, is dead and gone, replaced by a new art (a double?) that is directly inscribed on culture; a script for social and cultural agency. There is nothing left to die, as if we were caught in the ever-circling eye of the eternal return itself. As the blurb for George Romero’s Survival of the Dead (2009) goes: „Death isn’t what it used to be.“ This ought to be a cause for worry. Endgame narratives have always accompanied new paradigms, or have negated or problematized the reproduction of received ideas.
The zombie is always considered a post-being, a no-longer-human, an impossible subject. But can we also think of it as a pre-being? Can we turn it into a child; that most poignant embodiment of the monster and the ghost (the „child-player against whom can do nothing,“ as Spinoza put it), or at least allow it to indicate a limit of not-yet-being?34 That is, the lack incarnated by zombie is also present at the level of enunciation in the zombie narrative. In Romero’s films, the zombie apocalypse gradually recedes into the background and other – inter-human, social – problems become prominent during the unfolding of the plot. The zombie, always mute, is never at the center of the plot the way Dracula or Frankenstein are, hence its presence cannot be explained away as a mechanism for reintegrating social tension through fear. It is a strange, tragicomic monster that displaces evil and its concept: the zombie isn’t evil, nor has it been begot by evil; it is a monstrosity that deflects itself in order to show that our imagination cannot stop at the monster. It is irrelevant if you kill it (there will always be ten more rotten arms reaching through the broken window pane). The zombie pushes a horizon of empty time ahead of it; whether that time will be messianic or apocalyptic is held in abeyance. Or, the zombie represents the degree to which we are incapable of reimagining the future. So the question becomes: How can we look over its shoulder? What future race comes after the zombie? How do we cannibalize self-cannibalization? The only way to find out is to abstract the zombie condition.
Sooner or later, the opacity of our fascination with the zombie exhausts sociological attempts at reading of it. There is ultimately no way to rationalize the skepticism the zombie drags in. A similar mechanism is at work in art. Whereas sociology is based on positive knowledge, art is based on the concept of art and on culture’s re-imagining of that concept. Beyond the experience economy, and beyond sociological analysis of these, there lie new artistic thinking and imagining. Thus we can witness how it all falls apart in the end: sociology, zombie as allegory, even the absence of the end that turns out to be one. What is left are material traces to be picked up anew.
“Zombies of Immaterial Labor” was originally presented in the Masquerade lecture series, organized by the curatorial platform “If I Can’t Dance I Don’t Want To Be Part Of Your Revolution”, at the Piet Zwart Institute in Rotterdam, January 25, 2010.
Wiederabdruck
Dieser Text erschien zuerst in: e-flux journal # 15, April 2010, http://www.e-flux.com/journal/zombies-of-immaterial-labor-the-modern-monster-and-the-death-of-death/ [29.5.2013].
1.) I am grateful to Brian Kuan Wood for the title of this essay.
2.) “The Playboy Interview: Marshall McLuhan,“ Playboy, March 1969, available at http://www.nextnature.net/2009/12/the-playboy-interview-marshall-mcluhan. I am grateful to Jacob Lillemose for this reference.
3.) Sigmund Freud, The Uncanny, trans. David McLintock (1899; London: Penguin Books, 2003), 150.
4.) Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, The Communist Manifesto, trans. Samuel Moore (1848; London: Penguin Classics, 1967), 78, 94.
5.) Ibid.
6.) Ibid., 83.
7.) Jacques Derrida, Specters of Marx: the State of the Debt, the Work of Mourning, and the New International, trans. Peggy Kamuf (1993; New York: Routledge, 2006), 57.
8.) I am thinking of Mike Kelleys The Uncanny (1993; Cologne: Walther König 2004), Christoph Grunenberg’s Gothic: Transmutations of Horror in Late-Twentieth-Century Art (Boston: Institute of Contemporary Art, 1997), and Paul Schimmel’s Helter Skelter: L. A. Art in the 1990s, ed. Catherine Gudis (Los Angeles: Museum of Contemporary Art, 1992), which had the subtitle Art of the Living Dead).
9.) David Deitcher: „Social Aesthetics,“ in Democracy: A Project by Group Material, ed. Brian Wallis (New York: DIA Art Foundation, 1990), 37. (Deitcher erroneously states that Dawn of the Dead appeared in 1979; the correct year is 1978. I have corrected this in the quotation.)
10.) Franco Moretti, “Dialectic of Fear,“ in Signs Taken for Wonders: On the Sociology of Literary Forms, trans. Susan Fischer, David Forgacs, and David Miller (London: Verso, 1983), 84.
11.) Steven Shaviro, The Cinematic Body (1993; Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2006), 91.
12.) Brian Holmes, „The Affectivist Manifesto: Artistic Critique in the 21st Century,“ in Escape the Overcode: Activist Art in the Control Society (Eindhoven: Van Abbemuseum; Zagreb: What, How & for Whom, 2009), 14.
13.) See Julia Kristeva, Powers of Horror: An Essay on Abjection, trans. Leon S. Roudiez (New York: Columbia University Press, 1982).
14.) Hal Foster, The Return of the Real (Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press, 1996), 156.
15.) Jean and John L. Comaroff, „Alien-Nation: Zombies, Immigrants and Millennial Capitalism,“ South Atlantic Quarterly 101, no. 4 (Fall 2002): 779–805. I am grateful to Kodwo Eshun for this reference. The allegorical impulse behind bringing the zombie back to the Marxian concept of alienation derives from the dynamics of the zombie’s ruinous (lack of) existence. Thus George Romero’s famous trilogy is a sequence of allegorical variation: a critique of racist America (Night), a critique of consumerism (Dawn), and a critique with feminist overtones (Day).
16.) See Gilles Deleuze and Félix Guattari: Anti-Oedipus: Capitalism and Schizophrenia, trans. Robert Hurley, Mark Seem, and Helen R. Lane (1972; Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1983).
17.) See also my introduction in the exhibition guide A History of Irritated Material (London: Raven Row, 2010).
18.) Karl Marx, “Estranged Labour,“ in Economic and Philosophical Manuscripts of 1844, available at http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1844/manuscripts/labour.htm.
19.) Franco „Bifo“ Berardi, The Soul at Work: From Alienation to Autonomy, trans. Francesca Cadel and Mecchia Giuseppina (New York: Semiotext(e), 2009), 23.
20.) Deleuze and Guattari: Anti-Oedipus: Capitalism and Schizophrenia, 335.
21.) Wade Davis, The Serpent and the Rainbow (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1985), 80.
22.) Ibid., 139.
23.) See also my article “Brains“ in Muhtelif no. 4 (2008).
24.) Max Brooks, World War Z: An Oral History of the Zombie War (New York: Gerald and Duckworth, 2007), 96.
25.) See Berardi, The Soul at Work, 21.
26.) In the Spanish translation the body snatchers are ultracuerpos: ultrabodies, as if particularly well-adapted mutations.
27.) See also my „Kunst er Norm“ (Aarhus: Jutland Art Academy, 2008).
28.) James H. Gilmore and B. Joseph Pine II, The Experience Economy: Work is Theatre and Every Business a Stage (Boston: Harvard Business School Press, 1999), 16.
29.) Ibid., 175.
30.) See the Aarhus University, Faculty of Humanities website, http://studieguide.au.dk/kandidat_dk.cfm?fag=1062.
31.) Diedrich Diederichsen, Eigenblutdoping: Selbstverwertung, Künstlerromantik, Partizipation (Cologne: Kiepenheuer & Witsch, 2008).
32.) Zˇizˇek discusses the zombie in terms of suffering. Of Romero’s Night of the Living Dead, he writes: „The „undead“ are not portrayed as embodiments of pure evil, of a simple drive to kill or revenge, but as sufferers, pursuing their victims with an awkward persistence, colored by a kind of infinite sadness.“ The dead make their melancholic return because they haven’t been properly buried – just like ghosts, zombies return „as collectors of some unpaid symbolic debt.“ Zˇizˇek points out that „the return of the dead signifies that they cannot find their proper place in the text of tradition,“ an insight that we can use for our own sociological ends. Similarly, the experience commodity cannot find its place in the text of tradition and culture, inasmuch as this is what the experience economy is undoing. Slavoj Zˇizˇek, Looking Awry: An Introduction to Jacques Lacan through Popular Culture (Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press, 1992), 22-23.
33.) Shaviro, The Cinematic Body, 84.
34.) Quoted from Gilles Deleuze and Félix Guattari, Qu’est-ce que la philosophie (Paris: Éditions de Minuit, 1991), 70.
1.) Robert Musil, Das Märchen vom Schneider. In: Gesammelte Werke Band 7, hg. von Adolf Frisé, Reinbek bei Hamburg [1923] 1978, S. 627–629.
2.) Jerry Saltz, Has Money ruined Art. New York Magazine oct. 7, 2007, http://nymag.com/arts/art/season2007/38981/ vom 05.05.2013.
3.) Vgl. Uwe Schimank, Ute Volkmann, «Ökonomisierung der Gesellschaft», in: Andrea Maurer (Hg.), Handbuch der Wirtschaftssoziologie, Berlin 2008, S. 382–393, hier S. 383.
4.) Schimank/Volkmann sprechen in Anlehnung an Luhmann von einer «korrupten strukturellen Kopplung» (Anm. 3), unterschieden werden 5 Stufen der Ökonomisierung: 1. autonom, kein Kostenbewusstsein, 2. erste fremdreferentielle Zwänge, Minimierung wirtschaftlicher Verluste 3. Kostenbewusstsein mit Musserwartung, 4. Gewinnerzielung als Handlungsziel 5. Profitorientierung ohne Rücksicht auf den feldspezifischen Code, ‚feindliche Übernahme‘. Vgl. a. a. O. S. 385ff.
5.) Paul DiMaggio, «Social Structure, Institutions, and Cultural Goods: The Case of the U. S.», in: Pierre Bourdieu, James Coleman (Hg.), Social Theory for a Changing Society, Boulder u. a. 1991, S. 133–155.
6.) Fredric Jameson, «Postmoderne – zur Logik der Kultur im Spätkapitalismus», in: Andreas Huyssen, Klaus R. Scherpe (Hg.), Postmoderne. Zeichen eines kulturellen Wandels, Reinbek bei Hamburg 1986, S. 45–102, hier S. 48.
7.) Pierre Bourdieu, Über das Fernsehen, Frankfurt/M. 1998 [1996], S. 112–120.
8.) Die Formulierung ist soziologisch gemeint, behauptet also, nicht von «ästhetischer Autonomie» auszugehen. In der jüngeren Tradition der Kunstsoziologie, die sich vor allem mit der Frage von Kunst als Gesellschaft befasst, wird der autonome Charakter des sozialen Kontexts von Kunst betont, Luhmann spricht vom ausdifferenzierten Teilsystem Kunst; Bourdieu, der die Dynamik von im sozialen Raum angesiedelten Feldern betont, spricht von der relativen Autonomie des künstlerischen Feldes. Dagegen bezieht sich die ästhetische Autonomie auf eine eigene Formgesetzlichkeit des Kunstwerks die in der gegenstandslosen Selbstreferentialität der Kunst der Moderne gipfelt, um schließlich in der Kritik an Autorschaft und Authentizität in Frage gestellt zu werden. Dieser Autonomiebegriff ist hier ausdrücklich nicht gemeint. Zur Genese des Autonomiebegriffs vgl. auch Michael Einfalt, „Autonomie.“ In: Karlheinz Barck (Hg.): Ästhetische Grundbegriffe. Historisches Wörterbuch in sieben Bänden. Stuttgart; Weimar: S. 431–479.
9.) Theodor W. Adorno, Ästhetische Theorie, Gesammelte Schriften 7, Frankfurt/M. 1970, S. 335.
10.) Der Ausdruck stammt von Viviana A. Zelizer, zitiert in: Olav Velthuis, «Symbolic Meanings of Prices: Constructing the Value of Contemporary Art in Amsterdam and New York Galleries», in: Theory and Society, Jg. 32, Nr. 2 (2003), S. 181–215, hier S. 183.
11.) Pierre Bourdieu, «Die Produktion des Glaubens. Beitrag zu einer Ökonomie der symbolischen Güter», in: Pierre Bourdieu, Kunst und Kultur, Zur Ökonomie symbolischer Güter. Schriften zur Kultursoziologie 4, Konstanz 2011, S. 97–186. Das französische Original erschien 1977: «La production de la croyance», in: Acte de la recherche en sciences sociales, Nr. 13 (1977), S. 3–43.
12.) Die Formulierung stammt von Alain Caillé. In: ders. Die doppelte Unbegreiflichkeit der Gabe. In: Vom Geben und Nehmen. Zur Soziologie der Reziprozität, hg. von Frank Adloff und Steffen Mau. Frankfurt/New York: Campus Verlag, S. 161. Caillé unterscheidet einen „ersten Bourdieu“ für den sich interesseloses Handeln im Bezugsrahmen der Gabenökonomie als Illusion darstellt und in der Formulierung „es kalkuliert“ die Integration in das Habituskonzept erfolgt. Der „zweite Bourdieu“ versucht laut Caillé den latenten Utilitarismus des ersten Konzepts zu vermeiden, indem er den Begriff Interesse durch ‚illusio‘ und ‚libido‘ ersetzt.
13.) Vgl. dazu Jacques T. Godbout in collaboration with Alain Caillé: The World of the Gift. The Art Market. McGill-Queen’s University Press 1998. S. 4–8. Zur Reputationsbildung in der Kunstwelt vgl. Alan Bowness, The Conditions of Success. How the Modern Artist Rises to Fame. London 1989.
14.) Erica Coslor, «Hostile Worlds and Questionable Speculation: Recognizing the Plurality of Views About Art and the Market», in: Donald C. Wood (Hg.), Economic Action in Theory and Practice: Anthropological Investigations, Research in Economic Anthropology, Jg. 30 (2010), S. 209–224.
15.) Zur Diskussion um Damien Hirst siehe Luke White, Flogging a Dead Hirst? In: Journal of Visual Culture 2013, 12 (1), S. 195–199
16.) Heike Munder/Ulf Wuggenig (Hg.), Das Kunstfeld. Eine Studie über Akteure und Institutionen der zeitgenössischen Kunst am Beispiel von Zürich, Wien, Hamburg und Paris., Zürich 2012: JRP|Ringier. Die Befragungen in Zürich lagen Stichproben von Besucher/innen von fünf Ausstellungen zeitgenössischer Kunst im Migros Museum für Gegenwartskunst Zürich in den Jahren 2009 und 2010 zugrunde. In dem Band findet sich auch ein ausführlicher Bericht des Autors über die Ergebnisse der Forschung zu Fragen der Ökonomisierung: Christoph Behnke, Ökonomisierung und Anti-Ökonomismus. In: Das Kunstfeld a. a. O., S. 189–205.
17.) In der „Kunstfeld“-Studie wird das befragte Publikum differenziert entsprechend seiner Nähe zum professionellen Kern des Feldes: dem Zentrum (Künstler/innen, Kurator/innen, Galerist/innen, Sammler/innen, Kunstkritiker/innen), der Semiperipherie (z. B. kunstvermittelnde Berufe) und Peripherie (Ausstellungsbesucher ohne Bindung an das professionelle Kunstfeld).
18.) Vgl. die Jahresberichte von Artprice, http://web.artprice.com/ami/ami.aspx (15.5.2013). Als «Luxusgut» fungiert die Kunst für die High Net Worth Individuals (HNWIs), die im World Wealth Report, hg. von Capgemini and Merrill Lynch Global Wealth Management, http://www.de.capgemini.com/insights/publikationen/world-wealth-report-2010/ (15.5.2013) als Personen definiert werden, die mindestens 1 Million US-Dollar frei zur Verfügung haben (Ultra-HNWIs umfassen diejenigen, die mehr als 30 Millionen besitzen).
19.) Vgl. Noah Horowitz, Art of the Deal. Contemporary Art in a Global Financial Market, Princeton, Oxford 2011, S. 143–188.
20.) Isabelle Graw, Der große Preis, Köln 2008, S. 63 ff.
21.) Raymonde Moulin, «The Construction of Art Values», International Sociology, March 1994, vol. 9 no. 1 5–12, hier S. 11.
22.) Zitiert bei Moulin, «The Construction of Art Values» S. 8. Ambroise Vollard war ein Pariser Galerist und Verleger, der im Netzwerk der klassischen Moderne eine wichtige Rolle spielte. So stellte er 1901 erstmals Arbeiten von Picasso aus – Arbeiten von Matisse waren 1904 bei ihm zu sehen.
23.) Mark C. Taylor, Financialization of Art, in: Capitalism and Society, Volume 6, Issue 2, 2011, S. 2.
24.) Singer und Lynch kennzeichnen diesen Auktionsmarkt als jenes Segment, “in which collectors and dealers recycle, through the auction houses, art which had previously entered the secondary market for art.“ Leslie Singer and Gary Lynch, “Public Choice in the Tertiary Art Market,“ Journal of Cultural Economics 18 (1994), S. 199.
25.) Piroschka Dossi, Hype. Kunst und Geld, München 2008, S. 131. Dossi zitiert den Kunsthändler Larry Gagosian: «Ich verkaufe nicht gerne Bilder an Museen, weil ich sie dann nicht mehr zurückbekomme» (Dossi, Hype, S. 131).
26.) Vgl. Kevin F. McCarthy et al., A Portrait of the Visual Arts. Meeting the Challenges of a New Era. RAND, Research in the Arts, S. 71. Zu bedenken ist, dass zum enormen Wachstum des Kunstfeldes auch die Kunstkritik gehört, ablesbar etwa an Neugründungen bzw. Vermehrung und Reichweitensteigerung von Kunstzeitschriften. Ihre Wirkungsweise unterscheidet sich in den verschiedenen Segmenten des Kunstmarktes. Vgl. Ulf Wuggenig, Krise der Kunstkritik? In: Munder/Wuggenig (Hg.), Das Kunstfeld, 2012, a. a. O., S. 381ff. und in diesem Band.
27.) McCarthy et al., a. a. O., S. 71.
28.) Vgl. Artprice, Art Market Trends 2010, Contemporary Art und Post war art wurden addiert. S. 17.
29.) Vgl. Dirk Boll, a. a. O.
30.) Clare McAndrew, The International Art Market in 2011. Observations on the Art Trade over 25 Years. TEFAF, S. 57. Die Zahl bezieht sich auf die Verkaufszahlen, nicht auf die Umsatzzahlen, die durch die Spektakelpreise des Hochpreissegments ein anderes Bild ergeben.
31.) Vgl. Dirk Boll, Kunst ist käuflich. Freie Sicht auf den Kunstmarkt, Ostfildern 2009, S. 12. Siehe auch die Daten zur Verteilung der Preissegmente in den Jahresberichten von artprice.com.
32.) Velthuis spricht von ‚Pricing-Scripts‘, vgl. Olav Velthuis, Talking Prices: Symbolic Meanings of Prices of the Market for Contemporary Art, New Jersey 2005.
33.) Vgl. Ulf Wuggenig und Steffen Rudolph, „Symbolischer Wert und Warenwert.“ in Munder/Wuggenig (Hg.), Das Kunstfeld, 2012, a. a. O., S. 315ff. und Ulf Wuggenig und Steffen Rudolph, „Valuation Beyond the Market. On Symbolic and Economic Value in Contemporary Art“. In: Karen van den Berg und Ursula Pasero (Hg.), Art Production Beyond the Art Market, Berlin: Sternberg Press 2013, S. 100–149. Vgl. auch die Ergebnisse der Clusteranalysen der noch umfassenderen Studie von Larissa Buchholz, The Global Rules of Art. New York, Columbia University, Department of Sociology, Diss. 2013, S. 163ff.
34.) Als typisches Beispiel einer Künstlerkarriere dieser Art gilt die von Julian Schnabel, der im Rahmen des Neo-Expressionismus der 1980er Jahre schnell berühmt wurde – im weiteren Verlauf seiner Karriere aber in den Bereich Film wechseln musste, weil seine «Reputation» nachließ. Vgl. Abigail Solomon-Godeau, «Living with Contradictions: Critical Practices in the Age of Supply-Side Aesthetics», in: Social Text, Nr. 21 (1989), S. 191–213, hier S. 191.
35.) Gregory Sholette, Dark Matter. Art and Politics in the Age of Enterprise Culture. Pluto Press London, New York, S. 119.
36.) Vgl. dazu Luc Boltanski, Die Welt der Kunst im Bann des neuen Geistes des Kapitalismus, in: Kunstforum International Bd. 209, 2011. Interview mit Heinz-Norbert Jocks, S. 102–107.
37.) Vgl. Dirk Boll, Die Chancen werden neu verteilt. In: Politik & Kultur, Zeitschrift des Deutschen Kulturrates, 1/13, S. 16.
38.) Olav Velthuis, Talking Prices: Symbolic Meanings of Prices of the Market for Contemporary Art, New Jersey 2005, S. 43.
39.) Suhail Malik, «Critique As Alibi: Moral Differentiation in the Art Market», in: Journal of Visual Arts Practice, Jg. 7, Nr. 3 (2008), S. 283–295, hier S. 286.
40.) Velthuis, Talking Prices, S. 86.
41.) Rita Hatton, John A. Walker, Supercollector: A Critique of Charles Saatchi, London, New York 1999. Siehe auch: Anja Grebe, «Krawallkunst und Risikosammler: Charles Saatchi und die Young British Art. Vom Ausstellungskünstler zum Sammlungskünstler», in: Österreichische Zeitschrift für Geschichtswissenschaften, Jg.17, Heft 2–3 (2006), S. 58–82.
42.) Ulf Wuggenig, An der goldenen Nabelschnur, in: Texte zur Kunst, Heft 83, 2011, S. 69.
43.) Noah Horowitz berichtet, dass etliche Artfonds liquidiert werden mussten und dass die erzielten Gewinne mit anderen Anlageformen kaum konkurrieren können. Vgl. Noah Horowitz, Art of the Deal. Contemporary Art in a Global Financial Market, Princeton, Oxford 2011, S. 143–188.
44.) Pierre Bourdieu, Kultur in Gefahr, in: Gegenfeuer 2, Konstanz 2001, S. 99.
45.) Vgl. Lewis Hyde, Die Gabe. Wie Kreativität die Welt bereichert. Frankfurt/M. 2008. Siehe auch: Hans Abbing, Why Are Artists Poor? Amsterdam 2002, S. 34ff.
46.) Wir betonen in diesem Zusammenhang aus aktuellem Anlass die durch ökonomisches Kapital vermittelte Privilegierung. Nicht zu vergessen ist im gleichen Zusammenhang die Privilegierung durch kulturelles Kapital, worauf Pierre Bourdieu besonders konsequent hingewiesen hat.
47.) Andrea Fraser, L‘1 %, C’est moi, in: Texte zur Kunst Heft 83, 2011, S. 114–127.
48.) Vgl. dazu Erin Sickler, Alternative Art Economies: A Primer. In: Rethinking Marxism: A Journal of Economics, Culture & Society, 24:2, 2011, S. 240–251 und http://de.scribd.com/doc/69921213/Alternative-Art-Economies-a-Primer vom 15.05.2013.
49.) David Graeber, The Sadness of Post-Workerism or ‚Art and Immaterial Labour‘ Conference. A Sort of Review. Tate Britain, January 2008, S. 11. In: http://libcom.org/files/graeber_sadness.pdf vom 15.05.2013.